Department of Philosophy

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NARAJOLE RAJ COLLEGE

(NAAC Accredited B grade) DR. TANUKA ACHARYA Department of Philosophy

PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 1

JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)

Locke was the 17^th century British empiricist philosopher. Locke was the first in the modern period to commit himself programmatically to the question of the possibility of knowledge and to set out to answer this question systematically and in detail .Locke has examined the origin limit and the nature of knowledge in his famous treatise Essays Concerning Human Understanding. In his work he criticised the native rational approach to knowledge and instead approached the subject from amore subject from a more scientific standpoint.

IDEAS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

According to Locke, in the beginning man’s mind is a tabula rasa or a blank slate, similar to a dark chamber upon which there is not a single discernible sign on idea.

Knowledge that is communicated to the mind through experience is of two kinds namely; sensation and reflection. By sensation we arrive at knowledge of the sensory qualities of objects and by reflection, we can comprehended the mind’s own activities such as perception, emotion, belief, thought, reasoning and violation, Sensation and the reflection are the sources of different ideas. Hence mind’s knowledge is received, either through the senses or through mind’s action upon sensory experiences. The word `idea

‘used by Locke to indicate that knowledge which is directly known by the mind. The idea has two different meanings which are as follows:

i) It means a mode of individual consciousness.

ii) It means to represent action of something other than itself.

It has been said that when we say that we have an idea of the table; it only signifies that we are conscious of something that comes before us. It further says that the idea of table consists of some image and sensation that are found in independent of the mind. Each idea is referred as a modification of an individual’s consciousness.

Idea as an event can be studied in two ways which are as follows:

1) It can be studied in a purely psychological way. We can describe any idea in terms of images.

2) It can be also studied in a categorical way. We can also discover the logical content that is involved in the idea. Locke never ignores the representative character of an idea. We cannot say, that whether Locke was regarded as a realist or not. He believed only in mental world to which our ideas refer. The confining of our knowledge to ideas led us to the development of epistemological explanation of knowledge. It has been said that there are two kinds of ideas, which are referred as simple and complex ideas.

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PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 2 SIMPLE IDEAS

A simple idea is referred as one which is regarded as being in itself uncompounded. It contains nothing in itself. It is not distinguishable into different ideas. It is regarded as an unanalyzable simple datum of knowledge. Locke is not able to explain the way through which an idea is regarded as unanalyzable. He says that the idea of extension and duration are regarded as simple He confuses logical simplicity of conception with the simplicity of sensible presentation. His simple ideas are not regarded as the elements of logical empiricism. They are not also regarded as the sensation of the present day psychologies.

There are four kinds of simple ideas which are as follows:

1. Ides originating in a Single sense:- Certain complex ideas have their origin in a single sense. They are ideas of color, form, taste, touch, temperature, etc.

2. Ideas originating in more than one sense:- Most of the ideas of our mind originate in more than one sense organs simultaneously such as the ideas of space and time and form or

motion. They have their origin in the sense of sight and touch.

3. Ideas originating in Reflection:- Reflection only tells us about the internal world. In reflection method the mind becomes aware of its own action. It always differs from sensation.

In reflection, the mind is present directly to the ideas. A sensation is referred as a representative function of external things.

It has been said that attention is necessary for the reception of all simple ideas. In reflection greater attention is needed. In sensation, lesser attention is needed. Locke also likened the mind to a mirror. He said that the positivity of the mind saves the knowledge from fictitious knowledge.

4. Ideas originating in sensation:- Sensation helps the mind to acquire all knowledge about the determination of the external world. Reflection is used to receive information about the operation of its own process. A sensation is aroused by the affection of the body. Sensation is also related to external material things.

Bodily affection is conveyed to the brain and the knowledge, which is conveyed to the brain, gives rise to sensation only. He says that a sensation always represents something that is found ideal in the real world.

Locke mentions two other marks of simple ideas which are as follows:-

1. The mind is regarded as the passive. It has been said that when the mind becomes active, we are able to get complex ideas.

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PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 3 2. Simple ideas are directly known as the actual experience content. The simple ideas enter in the

mind one by one. They also refer to the qualities that are found together.

COMPLEX IDEAS

When simple ideas are put together or arranged according to certain combinations the result is complex ideas .Ideas of relationship are created in this way. Later on, some ideas that are conjoined with each other in actual real existence are separated from each other, and by the process of abstraction they are converted into complex abstract ideas.

Locke divides the innumerable complex ideas into the following three classes:

(1) Ideas of Modes:-

It includes mixed modes and simple modes. Modes are referred as a part of the complex ideas.

They are also referred as compound. They are considered as affections of substances. He talks very little about the mixed modes. The mixed modes contain the simple ideas from different ends. They are combined by the mind. They also form a single complex idea. Obligation and life are considered as the example of mixed modes. We can also give the example of beauty for it.

Simple modes are referred as variations of the same simple idea. It has no mixture of any other. The idea of one unit is regarded as simple. Simple modes are also found in spatial forms. The idea of infinite is regarded as purely negative. It has been said that we arrive at the infinite in a pure quantitative, comparative and negative way.

(2) Ideas of substance:-

The ideas of substance are not regarded as a simple idea. It is regarded as the idea of a support, which underlines a number of simple qualities that are experienced together. It has been said that the qualities cannot exist by themselves. They always take the help of a substance. He also believes in primary and secondary qualities.

(3) Ideas of Relations:-

Ideas of relation include causality and identity. It has been said that the simple ideas of sensation and reflection suggest the idea of substance only. The experienced data of change is used to imply the necessary ideas of power and causality. Active efficiency is also known by the experienced data of change. The power of causality means the same thing. It is referred as an idea of relation. The idea of relation also implies the capacity of producing changes and these changes are found in another body. The ideas of power and causality are regarded as subordinate to that active change.

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NARAJOLE RAJ COLLEGE

PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 4 THEORY OF INNATE IDEAS

According to Locke the mind is a tabula rasa or blank slate. The belief in innate ideas constituted a main pillar of rationalist’s philosophy. For them, ideas are inborn and not the product of

experience. These are called innate ideas. These innate ideas were supposed to be imprinted on our mind by God himself and so they carried with them the flavors of certainty and authority

Locke accepts that there are certain innate powers in the mind, like desire of pleasure and avoidance of pain are innate. Some self actions are innate. Locke accepts these powers but to him powers are not knowledge. They are only restricted to certain capacities.

REFUTATION OF INNATE IDEAS:-

According to Locke, innate ideas mean those ideas, which mind is able to find by itself. It has been said that these ideas are found to be different from the ideas that are received from outside.

These ideas have mysterious origin. These ideas are directly imprinted on the mind by God. These ideas also rested on universality. Universality is regarded as the indubitable test of their

innateness. The doctrine of innate ideas only makes an appeal to authority.

An appeal to reason is not included in the doctrine of innate ideas. According to Locke, the doctrine of innate ideas always formed a hindrance in the path of free inquiry. In innate ideas true knowledge is not found. He says that true knowledge is found only by the active employment of human facilities.

He was against innate ideas. He believes in the refutation of innate ideas. Locke pointed that if someone believes in the concept of innate idea, then they must accept that any idea is available to children as well as to insane individual.

Locke believes that those who call any idea as innate are normally lazy, as they want to avoid the effort of searching for ideas and to be on safer side, presume it to the innate. Further, in order to disprove the theory of innate ideas, Locke tries to establish the fact that man can possess all undeniable knowledge by the application of his normal natural power.

PROOFS AGAINST INNATE IDEAS:-

 Why do children and insane people have no experience of innate ideas? Locke has objected that if any truth is impressed upon the soul, then the soul should be aware of it. He rejected the possibility that one is not aware about the idea inside his soul. Hence, he points that if soul does possess some innate ideas, then children should also be aware of them, but they are not.

 Innate ideas should possess all experience and intellectual development;-If there are some innate ideas by implication, they should be prior to any acquired knowledge. It has been seen that the ideas that are said to be innate, normally follow or come after considerable

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PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 5 knowledge, which children possess. This knowledge is gained through experience. Now if it is considered that knowledge of these innate ideas occurs when the mind has gone through certain development, it becomes more difficult to prove their innate character.

 Relative ethical and religious concepts cannot be innate;- Locke has demonstrated that, in fact no religious or ethical ideas can be said to be universal. Religious and ethical concepts are influenced by time and space. Hence, they cannot be used to prove the theory of innate ideas.

 Innate ideas cannot be known in the absence of external influence;- One argument put forth the theory of innate ideas is that, these ideas are distorted and even destroyed by nature, education or other external influence. This argument also faced objection. It follows that whenever such external influences by objects are absent these innate ideas should be known, i.e. the individual should become aware of them.

Thus from the above mentioned critiques, Locke proved that the concept of innate ideas are full of flaws.

THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE:-

According to Locke mans knowledge depends upon experience. Sensation and thought provide the material of our knowledge. All knowledge All knowledge is gained by these two processes.

Sensation takes the shape of ideas in the mind. This relation between ideas are many i .e

.agreement or disagreement, similarity or dissimilarity, etc. Hence, knowledge is the name given to the relation between various ideas.

Locke also divides knowledge into four parts which are as follows 1. KNOWLEDGE OF IDENTITY:-

It means the identity of the content of an idea. It is distinct from the content of every other idea. It has been said that knowledge of mere identity gives only a trifling proposition.

Locke says that a significant prediction always involves assertion. He also advances the relational nature of knowledge. The knowledge of identity gives rise to the knowledge of relations. This knowledge consists of a perception of relations that exist between the content of one idea and that of another idea.

2. KNOWLEDGE OF RELATIONS:-

Locke explains the universal and necessary knowledge through the knowledge of relations.

The perceptions of these relations are added to knowledge. The nature of the nature of the idea is very important. By universal ideas, Locke means true ideas that are regarded as timeless and free from concrete details. The necessary knowledge is based on the eternal facts.

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PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 6 External facts are abstracted from all time relations. Mathematics is referred as the best

example of knowledge that are found in Science. It deals with ideal construction. The knowledge of Mathematics is not regarded as an innate idea.

The Mathematics demonstrative character depends upon the perfect determinations of the ideas. Discrete ideas also exist. Geometry is also used in the knowledge of relations.

3. KNOWLEDGE OF CO-EXISTENCE:-

For Locke, necessary convection is important. It has been said that knowledge of the name must have necessary convection. He makes a distinction between content of our ideas and the fact of concrete existence.

The material knowledge comes under the domain of the knowledge of co- existence. It has been said that the knowledge of actual substance cannot be raised to the status of the universal and certain knowledge.

4. KNOWLEDGE OF EXISTENCE:-

According to Locke, real objective world exist in its own way. He says that knowledge confined only to ideas and knowledge about existential things is not possible. He says that, through the use of two things only we are able to know the perfect knowledge.

First one is regarded as the intuitive knowledge of our own self and the second one is regarded as the existence of the material world. He says that self- knowledge depend only upon the fact.

These facts say that mind alone is able to present the understanding. The intuitive knowledge of self differs from the intuitive knowledge of abstract ideas. The intuitive self judge mentis regarded as self- sufficient. The existence of God is regarded as real. It has been said that we can demonstrate his existence.

Locke says that existence of particular substance cannot be known with certainty. Acco9rding to Locke, ideas are regarded as mere signs and these mere signs point the real things that go beyond themselves. He says that the knowledge of the primary qualities is possible. He is not able to deny the existence of the material world.

THREE GRADES OF KNOWLEDGE:-

Man’s knowledge clarity depends upon the correlations that are found between the ideas and these ideas exist in his mind. Locke deals with the questions of how the understanding constructs knowledge out of its ideas. Here, he distinguished three grades of knowledge.

(1) Intuitive Knowledge

By intuitive knowledge, Locke means the agreement or disagreement of two ideas that are perceived by the mind. They don’t need the intervention of any other thing. This

knowledge is regarded as most clear and certain. It is also regarded as the highest kind of knowledge. The human faculty is able to achieve this kind of knowledge.

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NARAJOLE RAJ COLLEGE

PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 7 (2) Demonstrative Knowledge

Demonstrative knowledge is referred as the agreement or disagreement of two ideas that are perceived by the meditation mediation or intervention of other ideas. A chain of intuition is found in the demonstrative knowledge. This knowledge is regarded as certain, but indirect.

It has been said that no doubt exist in intuitive knowledge, where as doubt occurs in a demonstrative knowledge. It has been said that demonstrative knowledge is not regarded as clear because it passes through different phases. It also requires the memory of the

previous intuitions.

The demonstrative knowledge is regarded as inferior, when it is compared with the intuitive knowledge. The demonstrative knowledge is not confined to mathematics alone.

It should be applied to ethics also.

(3) Sensitive Knowledge

Knowledge of the world is derived from the senses. External objects cannot be known either through intuition or through demonstration. Knowledge through the sense is called sensitive knowledge by Locke. Knowledge of this kind defers from the knowledge gained through dreams.

THEORY OF SUBATANCE

Locke is an empiricist, and yet he believes in the existence of matter, mind (soul) and God.

According to him, we have sensitive certainty of the existence of matter, we have intuitive certainty of existence of our own mind and we have demonstrative certainty on the existence of God.

DISTINTION BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY QUALITIES

Locke says that substance is the support of quality. He distinguishes between primary and secondary qualities. Primary qualities are absolutely inseparable from the substance; it belongs and exists in the substance. These qualities are essential to all bodies as such they can cause ideas in our mind which represent them. Thus, there is solidity in the object itself which corresponds to our idea of solidity.

On the other hand, secondary qualities don’t exist in the substance; they don’t represent something that exists in the object itself, although they are caused by power inherent in the internal structure of body. There are six primary qualities namely; solidity, extension, figure, rest, motion and number.

All other qualities are secondary, e.g. color, sound, taste etc. There will be primary quality even if there is no secondary quality, but secondary qualities depend on primary qualities.

Further primary qualities are invariable (does not change in context to the viewer) but

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NARAJOLE RAJ COLLEGE

PAPAR – C4T SEM - II JOHN LOCKE, THEORY OF IDEAS & KNOWLEDGE Page 8 secondary qualities are dependent on the experience, so, they can vary man to man (vary according to circumstances).

One thing that is important to note here is that primary qualities are qualities of objects themselves. They are implicit in the substance. They are really existent whether any person to perceive to them or not, but secondary qualities are dependent on the subject for e.g. without eyes there are no colors.

Primary qualities have their resemblances in the objects, which can’t be true of secondary qualities. Here, we can note that Locke’s theory of knowledge is representative theory because the ideas of primary qualities resemble primary qualities; they are the images of primary qualities. Though the ideas of secondary qualities don’t resemble secondary qualities but they do represent them.