Science-Policy Interface to Mitigate Water Scarcity in India

This is to prove that the thesis titled "Science-Policy Interface for Alleviating Water Scarcity in India: An Assessment of Virtual Water Flows" presented by Ms. Linking the finding of states' net water savings/losses to their respective levels of water scarcity, and water policies revealed that the lack of state-specific water policy undermines the sustainable use of freshwater resources and water management, for example, in Punjab.

Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1-12

Water Security to Mitigate Water Scarcity
Virtual Water Flows – An Emerging Concept for Science-Policy Interface
Virtual Water Research in South Asia- India an Interesting Case
Research Gaps
Research Questions
Expected Outcomes
Layout of the Thesis

There are two major research gaps in assessing research on VW currents in India at the science-policy interface. The chapter discusses the research hypothesis formulated in the second chapter in the context of the assessment of VW-currents.

Figure 1.1: Net virtual water imports for the period 1995-1999, green represents the nations with net exports and red represent the nations with net imports

Virtual Water Flows .................................................................................................... 13-27

Theoretical Framework

Environmental Concerns: Trade and Globalization

Water as a Factor of Production
Factors other than Water

This is because differences in technology are a sufficient but not a necessary source of comparative advantage. Based on this theoretical background, research hypothesis was formulated in accordance with the H-O theory of comparative advantage.

Application of Virtual Water Flows

Economic Sectors and Geographic Regions
Key Policy Areas

34;Climatic or Human Induced: Indicating Severe Water Scarcity in the Moulouya River Basin (Morocco)." Water No. 34;The Role of "Virtual Water" in the Water Resources Management of the Libyan Jamahiriya." Desalination no.

Table 2.1: The light and the dark side of virtual water

Data and Research Methodology ................................................................................ 28-50

Data Collection Procedure

Since then, water scarcity measures have evolved from an anthropocentric to an ecocentric approach. These indices were added to the water resource vulnerability approach (II) because they reflect water scarcity based on water resource vulnerability (Figure 3.1, these two indices are marked with

Research Method

This was followed by aggregating a country's water scarcity levels across the four approaches using the arithmetic mean. Finally, the water scarcity in the states created through this method was mapped using a geographic information system (GIS).

Table 3.1: Water Scarcity Approaches/Indices used to assess water scarcity situation in India Approach I: Human water

Virtual Water Flows

Scope and Scale

Scope: Agriculture Sector
Scale

Data Collection Procedure
Research Method

It is the interstate movement of food grains and oilseeds; WF of the selected. Quantitative data on the interstate movement of food grains and oilseeds was collected from Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence.

Table 3.2: Major food grains producing states zone-wise Food

Science-Policy Interface

Data Collection Procedure
Research Method

34;A Scarcity Value-Based Explanation of Transboundary Water Disputes: The Case of the Cauvery River Basin in India." Water Policy no. 34;Water Scarcity and Climate Change in India: The Need for Water Demand and Supply Management." Hydrological Sciences Journal no. 34; The Water Poverty Index: its role in the context of poverty alleviation." Water policy no.

34; The Future of Water: Water Footprints and Virtual Water." In Water Resources An Integrated Approach edited by Joseph Holden, 333-349. 34; Going Against the Stream: A Critical Analysis of Virtual Interstate Water Trade in the Context of the National Program of Link of Rivers of India." Earth Physics and Chemistry, Part A/B/C no.

Water Scarcity in India ............................................................................................... 51-66

Approach I: Human Water Requirements

The water scarce scenario worsens by 2050 as there is a further depletion in the per capita water availability per year to below 500m3/capita/year, indicated by the estimates of Narasimhan (2008), and Garg and Hassan (2007). The national average of water availability for human consumption was 1816 m3/capita/year in 2001 and 1731m3/capita/year in 2004 and did not reflect any water stress. However, this has declined and has become a concern since 2010 with water availability falling below the water stress benchmark of 1700 m3/capita/year to 1608 m3/capita/year.

For example, the average availability of water in the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna system was 2045 m3/capita/year while it was alarmingly low in the Sabarmati basin (263 m3/capita/year) in 2010. Along with Sabarmati, the water scarcity -basins of India Krishna, Cauvery, Subernarekha, Pennar, Mahi, Sabarmati, Tapi, East Flowing Rivers and West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni with water availability of less than 1000m3/capita/year (Figure 4.1, and Figure 4.2) Below this Cauvery , Pennar, Sabarmati and East-flowing rivers and West-flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra, including Luni, experience acute water scarcity with water availability of about 500 m3/ capita/year or less (Falkenmark, Lundgvist and Widstrand 1989, Government of India 2013c).

Figure 4.1: Per capita water availability using Falkenmark Indicator Source: TERI (2008)

Approach II: Water Resources Vulnerability

Most of the areas in India, except a part of the north and northeast, lie in the zone 0.8 to 1.0 which describes a very high level of water stress and threat to human water security. Punjab in the northwestern region of India has a score of more than 100 on the normalized multiyear maximum deficit index reflecting the highest long-term water stress. The findings of India's Water Stress Index are consistent with that of the Ministry of Agriculture on droughts.

These states are in the second highest category of drought vulnerability, but have low vulnerability according to the India Water Stress Index. This is mainly due to relatively better infrastructure facilities for storage to cope with water stress (Government of India 2014c, Columbia Water Center 2011).

Figure 4.3: Physical and economic water scarcity in the river basins of the world in 2007 Source:IWMI (2008a)

Approach III: Incorporation of Environmental Water Requirements (EWR)

High water stress in Narmada, Cauvery, Tapi, Krishna, Pennar, Brahmani and Baitrani, Subernarekha and west flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni with WSI score ≥ 1 (Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.6). The interpretation of the relationship in variability15 of river flow and EWR is such that the lowest variability of river flows16 reflects the highest EWR, e.g. Although approach III covers a key dimension of water scarcity, ie. EWR, does not take into account water consumption during the entire life cycle of the product, i.e. from the cradle to the grave.

15 The variability of the environmental flow (e-flow) is reflected from the analysis of the simulated river flow records and corresponding standardized flow duration curves (FDC). EWR is about 60-70% of natural MAR to maintain a river in the natural (A) or slightly modified (B) class; 25–33.3% of natural MAR is needed to maintain ecological health in the unmodified state (C), and 10% of natural MAR is essential to maintain the least ecological functions in the extremely modified (E and F) rivers ( Smakhtin and Anputhas 2006).

Figure 4.6: Water Stress Index using EWR Source: Smakhtin, Revanga, and Doll (2005)

Approach IV: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Water Footprint (WF)

Water Scarcity Situation at State Level

Apart from the North-East zone states, Kerala from the South and Goa from the West experience low to moderate water scarcity (Table 3.1 and Figure 4.8). This is because states in the central zone are approaching physical water scarcity, while states in the eastern zone face economic water scarcity (IWMI 2008a). This is reflected through the Falkenmark Indicator (approach I) that water availability has fallen below the water scarcity standard in the states' river basins.

High water scarcity is experienced by Punjab, Haryana in the north; Rajasthan and Gujarat in the west; and Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in the south. This is because the state's river basins face absolute water scarcity with water availability of less than 500m3/capita/year (Table 3.1 and Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.7: Methodological steps through an example of water scarcity level of Himachal Pradesh Source: Author‟s own

Virtual Water Flows: National and Sub-National Scale ........................................ 67-105

National Level (1996-2005)

Food Grains
Oilseeds

These are irrigation-intensive crops, which is why Wheat has the highest blue WF (56%). Production of pulses other than gram is associated with the highest wastewater generated, i.e., gray WF (31%).

National Level (2005-2014)

Food Grains
Oilseeds

Once you have an overview of national WF averages, it is essential to look at sub-national variations, ie.

Zone/State Level (1996-2005)

Food Grains
Oilseeds

Haryana and Uttar Pradesh from the North zone are among the major producers of gram and gram products. For example, the southern zone states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are major producers of pulses other than gram, sorghum and millet, and maize and millet. States in these zones are among the leading producers of oilseeds, despite severe water scarcity (Table 3.3 and Figure 4.8).

To illustrate, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra from the western zone are major producers of cotton oilseeds, others. The states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu of South zone are among the major producers of oilseeds besides cotton, groundnut oil and other vegetable oils (Appendix 12, Appendix 13 and Appendix 16).

Table 5.5: Zonal Average Water Footprint of Food Grains in 1996-2005

Zone/State Level (2005-2014)

Food Grains
Oilseeds

Finally, the states of Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal in the eastern zone are major producers of other types of grains even though the zone has the second highest WF (Appendix 26). For example, the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra in the western zone are major producers of cotton oilseeds, oilseeds other than cotton and oil cakes (Table 3.3, Annex 27, Annex 28 and Annex). The states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu of the Southern Zone are among the leading producers of oilseeds other than cotton, groundnut oil, castor oil, other vegetable oils and oil cakes (Annex 28, Annex 29, Annex 31, Annex 32 and Annex 33) .

Madhya Pradesh from the central zone continues to be the leading producer of oilseed cotton and mustard oil (Appendix 27 and Appendix 30). The states of West Bengal and Orissa of the Eastern zone are among the major producers of mustard oil and castor oil respectively despite being the second highest WF zones (Annexure 30 and Annexure 31).

Table 5.7: Zonal Average Water Footprint of Food Grains in 2005-2014

Summing Up

Virtual Water Flows

National Level (1996-2005)

Food Grains
Oilseeds

National Level (2005-2014)

Food Grains
Oilseeds

Zone/State Level (1996-2005)

Food Grains
Oilseeds
Aggregate: Food grains and Oilseeds

Zone/State Level (2005-2014)

Food Grains
Oilseeds
Aggregate: Food grains and Oilseeds

Summing Up

In contrast, unstable VW flows led to water loss in water-rich and moderate-to-water-scarce states such as Delhi, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh of the Northern zone (Figure 4.8 and Figure 5.2). Concerns are also associated with other water-scarce states such as Haryana, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh, which experience water losses due to VW leakage through food grains (Figure 4.8 and Figure 5.11). The highly water-scarce Punjab loses water stored in relatively abundant food grains, Assam (Figure 4.8 and Figure 5.13).

Water loss in Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan is a concern as these areas are highly water scarce (Figure 4.8 and Figure 5.15). Aggregating the VW flows in food grains and oilseeds revealed whether a state is a net VW importer or exporter in the two periods (Figure 5.9 and Figure 5.18).

Table 5.9: Crop-wise and year-wise VW-flows embedded in Food Grains (1996-2005) Year Crop-wise and year-wise VW-flows embedded in food grains ( Giga Litres= GL= X 10 9 L)

Water Policy at Science-Policy Interface: Challenges and Opportunities to Mitigate

State Water Policies

Water Scarcity Inducers
Water Allocation Priorities
Water Use Efficiency
Water Savings
Stakeholders‟ Participation and Water Literacy
Summing up

It is based on five key indicators – (1) drivers of water scarcity; (2) water allocation priorities; (3) water use efficiency; (4) saving water; and (5) stakeholder engagement and water literacy to mitigate water scarcity (criteria for selecting these key indicators are discussed in Section 3.3.2). It is interesting to note here that based on the analysis of water scarcity and VW flows, both countries are moderately water scarce and are net importers of VW (Table 6.1). This is evident from the fact that few water policy documents acknowledge the latest scientific evidence and research on water scarcity.

For example, water scarcity is still only mentioned in terms of the first approach, i.e. based on human water needs. There is a lack of integration of the latest scientific (natural and social) insights into the policy discourse to address India's country-specific water scarcity issues.

Table 6.1: Water scarcity levels of net VW importing and exporting states Water Scarcity

Key Outcomes and Recommendations................................................................... 125-132

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

Expected result I: Inclusion of water as a production factor in political decisions for the sustainable management of water resources. Therefore, for the sustainable use and management of water resources, it is crucial to include water as a production factor in political decisions. Expected result II: Emphasize the importance of the science-policy interface to adequately address the issue of water scarcity.

A holistic approach is reflected in the internalization of water resources as both a source and sink of the economy. Fourth, by integrating relevant experiences of other states in the formulation and implementation of water policies.

Limitations of the Study and Scope for Future Research

Data
Research Design
Impact

34; The Political Ecology of Virtual Water in Southern Spain." International Journal of Urban and Regional Research No. 34; Global Warming and its Potential Impact on Agriculture in India." In Advances in Agronomy, edited by L. Master narratives in the history of water and their implications for contemporary water policy." Water Policy no.

Classification of States into Zones

Water Footprint of Rice in the Husk (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Rice Not in the Husk (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Wheat (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Wheat Flour (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Gram and Gram Products (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Pulses other than Gram (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Sorghum and Millet (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Maize and Millet (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Other Sorts of Grains (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Oilseeds Cotton (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Oilseeds other than Cotton (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Groundnut Oil (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Mustard Oil (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Castor Oil (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Other Vegetable Oil (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Oil cakes (1996-2005)

Water Footprint of Rice in the Husk (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Rice not in the Husk (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Wheat (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Wheat Flour (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Gram and Gram Products (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Pulses other than Gram (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Sorghum and Millet (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Maize and Millet (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Other Sorts of Grains (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Oilseeds Cotton (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Oilseeds other than Cotton (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Groundnut Oil (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Mustard Oil (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Castor Oil (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Other Vegetable Oil (2005-2014)

Water Footprint of Oil cakes (2005-2014)

Inter-state VW-flows embedded in Food Grains (in GL) (1996-1997)

Inter-state VW-flows embedded in Food Grains(in GL) (2000-2001)

Inter-state VW-flows embedded in Food Grains(in GL) (2003-2004)

Inter-state VW-flows embedded in Oilseeds (in GL) (1996-1997)

Inter-state VW-flows embedded in Oilseeds(in GL) (1998-1999)

Inter-state VW-flows embedded in Oilseeds(in GL) (2004-2005)