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REVIEW OF ORGANISATIONAL THEMES IN LITERATURE ON WOMEN INMANAGEMENT Dr. Adela Kazmi
Assistant Professor & PhD in Management Studies Prof. Azhar Kazmi
Visiting Professor of Management King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Saudi Arabia
Abstract- This review paper, based on survey of literature in the field of women in management, presents a panoramic view of the organisational themes that recur in research during the past about four decades. The field of women in management spans a variety of disciplines ranging from feminism to gender studies and the role of women in society, family and organisations. Coupled with the fact that women increasingly play an important role in all these areas, research in the field has traversed a number of themes and issues.
This review article identifies three broad organisational themes in the literature.
These are: work life balance, gender inequality, and glass ceiling syndrome. While many studies reported may be confined to one theme yet there are a number of studies that transcend one specific theme and incorporate elements of the other prevalent themes. This results in a rich tapestry of research studies. In view of the abundance of studies reported in literature, this paper picks up some representative research studies to demonstrate the nature, content, and direction of research in this challenging field.
Keywords: women studies, women managers, women as managers, women in management, research on women managers, work life balance, gender inequality, glass ceiling.
Research in the broad field of women in management has attracted considerable attention recently picking up particularly after the launch of feminist movement. Interest in women‘s studies around the world has also led to increasing focus on working women in organisations.
Contemporary research literature on subject of gender in management has been nurtured by intellectual contributions coming from several different streams of knowledge.
Among these are debates in and around feminism, the burgeoning field of women‘s studies and critical studies on gender, and on recognizing women and their experiences, situations and viewpoint in organizations and management.
Research on ‗women managers‘ or ‗women in management‘ leads one to several overarching themes. These themes recur throughout the literature on the subject. A scheme of identifying the overarching themes has been evolved in the present project from which material for this paper is drawn. This scheme identifies three broad directions of research in the area of women in management. These are: behavioural themes, organisational themes, and spatial themes. Organisational themes include the significant issues of work-life balance, gender inequality, and glass ceiling syndrome. Behavioural themes identified are attitude, communication, leadership, motivation and personality pertaining to women managers. Spatial themes include women in different geographies and in different industries and types of organisations.
Gender is an inevitable part of managing organizations. In organisations where men and women work together the position of women in comparison with men is an issue that is the subject matter of the area of gender in management.
When gender is referred to, it is usual to think of ‘men and women‘ and ‘relations between them‘; these are certainly part of gender, but only a part. (Broadbridge & Hearn, 2008) The differences between men and women have more to do with the biological sexual differences among them; gender has wider connotations of the social, cultural, political and
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historical differences. Oakley (1972) was among the pioneering scholars to distinguish ‘sex‘as biological sex differences from ‗gender‘ as socio-cultural constructions of sex differences.
Sexual differentiation is both visible and as well as latent. Physical differences in men and women are the cause of overt sexual differences. Latent differences are the differences in physiological functions acting differently in men and women. Gender differentiation refers to social processes that create and exaggerate biological differences.
(Reskin, 1988) Taken together, sexual and gender differentiation makes it possible to distinguish men and women in readily noticeable ways.
Rather than resorting to a misplaced sense of egalitarianism it should be recognised that indeed men and women are often different, function differently and perform differently both between and among them. Yet such differences do not mean that one is better or worse than the other or that one should be rewarded and the other not. (Chapman-Harris, 2013) Yet, gender differentiation generally has been moulded into a social tool to not just differentiate but to discriminate against women to the undue advantage of men. ―Gender ideology and gendered organisations institutionalise the favoured position of men as a group‖ (Padavic & Reskin, 1994) Gendered management thus is seen as leading to stereotyping of certain jobs as being primarily male or female with setting of pay and terms and conditions of work thereby institutionalising gender differentiation under the garb of gender discrimination.
Gender discrimination would lead to gender inequality and thus gender equality has been the overarching theme in the feminist movement as well as efforts to give women their due share in the world of work through advocacy groups and civil rights legislation. A subtle distinction is however made sometimes between gender equality and gender equity.
Gender equality has been considered somewhat problematic not only by the opponents of women‘s rights but also the proponents. The idea is that people irrespective of whether they are men or women are not equal in terms of capabilities or preferences. Thus, to try to fit all women or all men into a single mould is not realistic. The concept of equity is a useful complement to that of equality in which case gender equity requires equality of opportunity as well as a fair allocation of constraints. (Rapoport & Rapoport, 1975)
The natural differences between men and women lead to several repercussions within organizations that are the focus of studies in gender in managing. That gender is an imperative can be seen in several observations such as the differences in preferred occupation by men and women, the relative differences in terms of how power and influence is exercised in organisations or how discrimination occurs with women facing negative consequences in terms of pay disparities or promotional opportunities. All these and many more are the typical issues in gender in managing organisations.
Diversity has gained currency and acceptance within organisation over time. Legal frameworks designed to offer equitable treatment to disadvantaged sections of society, affirmative action by governments around the world, the feminist movement, and the need to make organisations more diverse so as to take advantage of globalisation are some of the factors that have made attaining diversity in human resources a laudable objective of organisations. Among the disadvantaged sections of society are considered people based on ethnicity, social classes such as castes, socio-economic groups and women. Thus, women have also benefited from the movement towards increasing diversity within organisations and it is called gender diversity.
Gender diversity has been reported to offer several advantages. Of great interest to companies is the finding that gender diversity results in better financial performance.
Catalyst, 2012 reports studies including from the consultants McKinsey that better performing companies have number of women in their executive ranks. Diversity, in general, is credited with imparting competitive advantage to companies in terms of growth and innovation. Further, diversity is also cost-effective as it helps retains employees.
(Catalyst, 2012)
This review is based on a comprehensive search of databases available in library databases including ProQuest‘s ABI/Inform Global, EBSCO‘s Academic Search Complete, Emerald Fulltext Plus, Science Direct, and Social Science Research Network; and search
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engines such as Google Scholar and Directory of Open Access Journals. Since the repertoire of sources is large, it has been possible to include only a small set of representative studies on each of the themes identified in the research review. These could be indicative of the trend in research directions under a particular theme.Of the several issues identified in the three overarching themes identified in this research work, three issues within the organisational theme stand out owing to their preponderance in the literature. These themes are the subject of this section of the review of literature: work-life balance, gender inequality, and glass ceiling syndrome pertaining to women managers.
1. WORK-LIFE BALANCE
The time spent at work and with family comes out of a total of 24 hours available.
Balancing work responsibilities with devoting time to family is the essence of work-life balance. According to Peters, Montgomery, Bakker and Schaufeli (2005), pressures from the job and family domains are often incompatible, giving rise to imbalance. Therefore, the concept of work-life balance, along with its implications, is a core issue that is gaining more and more light. The finding that conflict between work and family occurs when individuals have to perform multiple roles (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) such as spouse, parent, housekeeper, employee and entrepreneur. Each of these roles requires time and energy, which are exhaustible commodities that, once spent on one role, will not be available for another. Kirchmeyer (2000) considers a balanced life as one in which the individual achieves satisfying experiences in all life domains. However, in this highly competitive and globalised society, it is very difficult for women managers to carry out all roles simultaneously. As a result, they become mentally and physically exhausted because of the role demands arising from the work and family domains. This often leads to health impairment, dissatisfaction and decreased commitment to life and work roles. Compared to those of an employee, the role demands of an entrepreneur are multiplied because the latter has to act simultaneously as an employee, business owner, manager and motivating leader.
Work life and family and personal life are inter-connected and interdependent. For instance, spending more time in office, dealing with clients can interfere and affect the personal life. On the other hand, personal life can also be demanding if there are children or aging parents at home needing care. It can lead to absenteeism from work, creating stress and lack of concentration at work. Problems at work can also cast a shadow on personal life and vice versa illustrated in the sad case of a man becoming alcoholic because of work pressures and facing problems at work because of being an alcoholic. A research into Malaysian and Australian women managers viewed family and personal responsibilities as their greatest impediment to attaining senior management positions as a consequence of which they are unable to manage careers and families simultaneously. (Jogulu & Wood, 2011)
Dissatisfaction with career progress drives many women out of the workforce in India and there are as many women who withdraw from due to the needs of childcare. This finding was brought out in a survey by Centre for Talent Innovation the report of which is available on a blog of the Harvard Business Review. The survey reveals that many women face difficulties in managing work and family obligations simultaneously. This is despite the fact that many Indian companies have started to offer flexible work arrangements yet women perceive that they may be penalised if they opt for them. Women who return to work after availing flexible work benefits feel stigmatised and find it difficult to manage their career progression. The survey has some interesting findings among them is that eldercare in family is more important for Indian career women than childcare. This is a significant difference from what women experience in developed countries. (Hewlett, 2013)
Thus, work-life balance can be seen from three perspectives: work influence on personal life, personal life influence on work, and the work/personal life enhancement. As is obvious, in the first case events at work cause stress leading to interference in personal life. In the second case, problem at home or with family can cause deterioration of the ability to work effectively. In the third case, work and personal life, instead of interfering
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with each other can support each other such that both are enhanced in a happy juxtaposition of synergy feeding into each other.Work life balance is not necessarily a gender related issue: it could be a challenge both for men and women. Since women are more stressed due to high expectations from them to perform duties both at work and at home, work life balance is of special relevance to working women.
The current trend is for most companies to have family friendly policies such as health insurance and maternity benefits, and according to research there are several programmes such as flexible work hours, parental leave, telecommuting, job-sharing, and part-time work options are becoming increasingly common-place in many corporate settings (Keene, 2004). However, a 2004 study of working mothers, showed that many women avoid taking advantage of such programmes, especially those who have reached senior management positions and who are willing to make the personal sacrifices needed to compete with their male-counterparts. The study showed that women would go to great lengths to avoid perception that family responsibilities would affect their career commitment (Baxter & Wright, 2000).
The importance of creating a healthy balance between work and family life benefits all parties involved. Full-time employees who have adequate time for their families, and full- time homemakers who have adequate opportunities for other work, are less vulnerable to health related problems. There are substantial economic savings including increased productivity, lower absenteeism, and decreased medical expenses. Work is a central part of what can yield such fulfilment and provide individuals with meaning, structure, identity, and self esteem. Often unpaid labour, such as raising a family, provides greater satisfaction in these respects than paid labour. (Maniam, et al., 2010)
2. GENDER INEQUALITY
Gender inequality is a significant sociological concept that explains the lack of parity between men and women in social situations. Men are considered as involved in objective tasks such as wage earning and women in subjective tasks such as family care and child rearing. Typically, the subjective tasks performed by women in societies, though vital, have been valued lesser than the objective tasks placing women at disadvantage vis a vis men thus creating gender inequality.
Popular literature such as John Gray‘s Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus stress the innate differences between the minds of men and women. Boys, therefore, develop improved spatial skills not because of an innate superiority but because they are expected and are encouraged to be strong at sport, which requires expertise at catching and throwing (Silverman & Eals 1992). Similarly, it is anticipated that girls will be more emotional and talkative, and so their verbal skills are emphasized by teachers and parents.
(Gurian 2001).
Even though women have made significant advances in terms of catching up economically with men, gender differences in wages and in representation in high profile jobs still prevail (Bertrand & Hallock, 2001). The most common hypotheses for the gender disparity are discrimination and gender differences in abilities and in preferences for types of jobs. The psychological literature suggests that women and men differ in their self- perception of ability in many domains. (Beyer & Bowden, 1997).
Learned behaviour is held responsible for the phenomenon of gender inequality when men and women are conditioned to believe in certain masculine and feminine characteristics. These characteristics such as physical strength to perform manual tasks or tenderness in caring for children have been the basis for division of labour among men and women thus creating occupational segregation in societies. Since tasks performed by women at home are not valued economically, no value is assigned to them creating wage disparities. Feminism has emerged as a movement that militates against the idea of gender inequality demanding equal treatment for both men and women. Generally, world bodies such as United Nations and governments around the world are working towards eradicating or neutralising gender inequality. Social justice mechanisms also include women as
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significant minority and affirmative action is encouraged to encourage participation of women in economic affairs.Gender inequality is a wide concept straddling several disciplines such as economics, sociology and psychology. In management, gender inequality is considered in the context of women employees and managers in organisations.
Literature provides vast information on gender inequality issues. Dominant among these are the issues of dysfunctional organisational culture creating conditions in which gender segregation takes place, occupational segregation stereotyping women managers for certain jobs and not for others, sexual harassment at work, and pay differentials based on gender discrimination.
The link between authority and wage differentials is the outcome of occupational segregation. Women managers tend to be concentrated in occupations that minimise their chances of having managerial authority and job autonomy. Often, women managers may exercise lesser authority even in occupations with similar proportions of men and women. A high proportion of women managers also tend to reduce both men and women managers‘
wages. (Mano-Negrin, 2004)
The issue of occupational segregation is also related to the prevalence of gender inequality in terms of promotion of women managers to higher positions in organisation as well as being paid lesser than men. The question here could be whether women are underrepresented in higher positions because there is a dearth of qualified women candidates or because there is lack of organisations willing to employ the women who are qualified. The first possibility would be taken up for discussion under glass ceiling syndrome. The second possibility throws up the concern about dysfunctional organisational culture that deliberately hinders progression of women managers.
Organisational cultures vary in their functionality in terms of contributing to or detracting from organizational performance and effectiveness. A dysfunctional organization culture is defined as one that limits individual- and group-level capabilities and/or that actually encourages and rewards mediocre individual- and group-level performance. An organization‘s leadership is likely to perpetuate such cultures. (Van Fleet & Griffin, 2006)
Organisations with dysfunctional cultures have individuals who exhibit deviant behaviour such as violence or drug abuse. On the part of organisations, management may also be the cause of dysfunctional culture when the policies and practices encourage deviant behaviour. It is in this context, that negative attitude of men towards women can arise not only from individuals who have been through a socialisation process outside where such behaviour is accepted and encouraged but also within where organisations can ignore or connive with such behaviour.
A major challenge within organisations where gender mix is there is the issue of sexual harassment at work. Generally women and sometimes men may be victims of deviant behaviour of individuals and may be subject to sexual harassment in the form of verbal innuendos and suggestive signs to rape and murder.
There are several causes of sexual harassment at work including the major ones like stereotyped sex roles, double standards, and the economic vulnerability of the working woman leading to several psychological, economic, and physical problems for the victims.
Sexual harassment is sex-based discrimination because it singles women out for special treatment in a way that adversely affects their employment status, and as such is a violation of their rights. (Renick, 1980) Sexual harassment is not necessarily individual or personal, as is often claimed, but rather is part of a social context in which women as a group are discriminated against by being subjected to gender inequality.
Gender inequality is a significant theme that recurs in the literature related to women managers in organisations. Along with gender inequality, occupational segregation, wage disparities, sexual harassment at work and dysfunctional organisational cultures emerge as significant sub-themes in this review of literature.
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3. GLASS CEILING SYNDROMEGlass ceiling syndrome is a widely discussed phenomenon in the field of women in management. The existence of this invisible barrier which prevents women from attaining leader positions is explained by lack of human capital, as well as by gender differences and prejudice. The reasons mentioned for the limited numbers of women in top management positions are among others that they take on significantly more domestic responsibilities, have less work experience, show different leadership styles, they more often assume informal leadership roles, and self-promotion among women is judged more harshly than among men Northouse, 2007). But there is also evidence that the glass ceiling has been slowly changing in recent years due to adjustments in values with the increased labour force participation of women, altered legislation, changes in organizations, business culture, and among women themselves (Goethals, Sorenson & Burns, 2004, Northouse, 2007).
There are myriad studies available that rely on counting the number of women managers in organisations, at senior levels, and board positions. The assumption is that women managers working in organisations, represented at senior levels, and appointed at board level strengthen the probability of women managers experiencing an environment conducive for them.
An Ernst & Young survey has revealed that two-thirds of women employed in the United Kingdom believe that, rather than facing just a single barrier restricting their entry into the boardroom, they face multiple barriers throughout their working life This survey of 1,000 working women aged from 18 to 60 identified four key barriers to career progression in UK organisations: age, lack of role models, motherhood, and qualifications and experience. When the respondents were asked to identify three things that their organisations could do to remove these barriers, the popular answers were: more support after returning to work from having children, additional support at every stage of their career lifecycle, and visible female role models. (ASTD, 2012)
Across cultures too, the differences in perception of women as managers persist. For instance, in a cross-cultural study of China and the US, it was reported that differences exist in perceptions by gender and nationality. Overall, women were perceived less favourtably as managers by Chinese and U.S. males as compared to perceptions of Chinese and U.S. female participants. (Sincoff, et al., 2009)
The question whether having more women in top managerial positions in organisations helps advancement of women at lower levels of management is answered by a study in the US. The study focused on whether women in the highest levels of firms‘
management ranks help to reduce barriers to women‘s advancement in the workplace. The key findings of this study show that an increase in the share of female top managers is associated with subsequent increases in the share of women in midlevel management positions within firms. But the positive influence of women in top leadership positions on managerial gender diversity diminishes over time, suggesting that women at the top play a positive but transitory role in women‘s career advancement. (Kurtulus & Tomaskovic-Devey, 2012)
Baumgartner. & Schneider (2010) observed that despite advances that women have made in organizations over centuries, women continue to be underrepresented in upper management positions. Based on their review of literature, six issues that women face when encountering the glass ceiling were examined. Collectively, responses from women who had broken the glass ceiling provided suggestions for overcoming stereotypes, contending with the Old Boys network, balancing work and family, choosing mentors, understanding the queen bee syndrome, developing a leadership style, and determining personal aspirations for advancement.
Laabs, 1993 reports in an interview of Catherine White Berheide, an associate professor of sociology at Skidmore College the plight of most women working in local and state government. Their plight, according to Berheide, is low-paying, low-mobility jobs that keep women stuck to careers without hope of advancement. While the glass ceiling keeps women from breaking through into the top management ranks, the sticky floor, a euphemism developed by Berheide, keeps women from getting their careers off the ground.
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Berheide has developed a three-pronged plan for to prevent the sticky floor syndrome:affirmative action, promotion, and pay equity.
Some researchers like Kirchmeyer (1998) found it interesting to study the structural barriers that women managers face. Some of the common examples include the lack of supportive relationships from mentors, superiors and access for network as determinants of career progression of women. This issue has gained a lot of attention among researchers.
One of the researches by Harlon & Berheide (1994) indicates that sex- segregated jobs, holding jobs in lower positions and lack of job ladders are major factors for women‘s representation in the top management cadres. Croty & Meier (2002) had found that the existence of bureaucratic structures in the majority of organizations, play a very prominent reason that hampers the growth of women managers to the top ladder of the organizational hierarchy. In his study Marshall (1995) reflected on the angle of personal barriers of women managers. He elaborates that the turnover of women employees is because of low level of adaptability to the work environment, lack of job involvement due to higher levels of job stress and long working hours, lack of emotional balance and women‘s desire to spend more time for personal commitments.
The use of the term ‗pipeline‘ in the context of women‘s participation represents the level through which the management hierarchy operates. As more women enter the workforce at lower levels they progress upwards until they hit the glass ceiling through which they face challenges to reach higher levels. According to the ―pipeline‖ argument, women‘s representation at higher levels in organisations should grow with their increased representation in the pipeline that leads to those levels. As women move up through the pipeline they accumulate knowledge, acquire skills and gain the necessary experience in order to be eligible to apply for the top jobs. According to Wirth, 2001 women in all age groups have been increasing their participation in the work force over decades. So it can be expected that more women may be available in the pool of talent from which selections take place thereby increasing the probability of women being selected for higher positions.
4. WAY FORWARD FOR WOMEN MANAGERS
It can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the kinds of barriers faced by men and women at work. There have to be efforts from both the organization as well as the individual to remove, neutralise or lessen them. In this paper, a general overview of the various challenges faced by women at personal, work, and organization levels is discussed.
Work life balance in women in management literature is generally studied from three aspects: work influence on personal life, personal life influence on work, work/personal life enhancement. Gender inequality is examined based on four aspects: dysfunctional organisational culture, occupational segregation, sexual harassment at work, and pay differential. Glass ceiling is evaluated on three aspects: lack of career exposure, lack of training opportunities and lack of promotion opportunities.
Several endeavours by organizations to tackle with the problems of work life balance, gender inequality and glass ceiling are highlighted in the literature. There are suggestions such as gender proactive human resource policies, corporate social responsibility interventions, supportive leadership and positive mentoring in organizations to remove the systemic, social and attitudinal barriers towards women at work and in society at large. To advance women in managerial roles, support by top management is essential. Promoting diverse management practices and opening doors to women in management— through proactive policies and programs—is one way for organizations to expand their talent pool and, ultimately, their leadership pipeline.
This paper also discusses the various channels or forces which need to be changed to bring changes within organizations and in society at large regarding women‘s role at work. To deal with the issues of work life balance, gender inequality, and glass ceiling significant changes in talent management and leadership management practices are required. It has to be a joint effort by the individuals and organizations to gain the support and knowledge businesses need to promote gender equality, erase glass ceiling, and maintain work life balance and sustain long term change. Ignoring the role and
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