International Journal of Research and Development - A Management Review (IJRDMR)
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Achieving Development in Society: The Gender Issues in a post- liberalisation era in India (with Special reference to Odisha).
C. R. Das.
Nabakrushna Choudhury Centre For Development Studies, Odisha, Bhubaneswar.
Abstract:-Socio-economic development of a society is not possible by excluding major chunk of population. Inclusive growth cannot be realized by excluding women from the development process. Education, health, employment and income opportunities should be equally made available to women who had been managing household activities since time immemorial and sacrificed a lot for the household activities which was not reflected in the National income for long period. The paper tries to focus various problems at macro-level and development measures taken by the government to ensure their participation in each and every activity. Discrimination on ground of gender is no more acceptable from social, economic, ethical and humanitarian considerations. The post liberalization, privatization and globalization scenario made a warning that without developing women in our society we will unable to manage and sustain the impetus of achieving higher and sustainable development. The paper embraces selected issues relating to their constraints and contributions in the arena of ensuring sustainable development.
Prelude:
Achieving development is a difficult but sustaining it is more difficult. With the changing socio-economic situation after Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation our Nation requires to point out each and every stumbling block in its endeavour to achieve growth and remove such obstacles which are contradicting its objectives. In such a condition the case of women in a patriarchal hierarchy needs to be scrutinized. Women have not been treated at par with men in every aspect of life though there is no reason to deny their crucial role for the sustenance of society at macro level and family at micro-level in order to achieve the goal of social, economic development of society.
Patriarchal system of family relations has been identified as the one of significant contributory factors to keep women in subjugation. Keeping in view the importance of women Swami Vivekananda wrote “just as a bird could not fly with one wing only, a nation could not march ahead if the women are left behind.” The declaration of International Women‟s year 1975 inspired government, academic bodies, researchers and policy makers to work on the issue pertaining to women and their role, in each and every aspect of life.
Gender equality is not only a matter of social justice but also a subject of economics. Women‟s well being and development are interrelated. Discrimination means
losses in productivity and lower welfare of women, their families and society at large.
With the advent of time and paradigm change in global scenario leaders of nations, economic experts, policy makers entered into a consensus to meet the need of nations in the globe by allowing free flow of factors of productions with a view to achieve global harmony and to ensure survival of global community in future.
„Globalisation‟ is used to describe the process of growing integration within the world economy through increased cross-border movement of capital goods and services and establishment of global production networks. Expansion of market through out the world due to liberalization and deregulation of national market based on the belief that free market lead to the most efficient and productive allocation of resources. The world community reposed their faith in the power of the unrestricted market to resolve the fundamental problems of the human condition at each and every steps (Mazumdar,2007). But, any developmental process and program in which women do not directly participate and fruits from which are not shared equitably is neither sustainable nor desirable. Development if not engendered is indeed endangered (UNFPA, 1997). In order to establish the importance of gender in the socio- economic front it is necessary to know sex ratio composition of population in the society. The following table depicts the sex ratio in India and in a backward state like Odisha.
Table:1 Sex Ratio of India and Odisha since 1901 Sl.
No
Census year
India Odisha Gap between India and Odisha
0 1 2 3 4
1 1901 972 1037 65
2 1911 964 1056 92
3 1921 955 1086 131
4 1931 950 1067 117
5 1941 945 1053 108
6 1951 946 1022 76
7 1961 941 1001 60
8 1971 930 988 58
9 1981 934 981 47
10 1991 927 971 44
11 2001 933 972 39
12 2011 940 979 39
Sources: Census of India-22 Odisha, Rural Urban distribution of population, Manoranjan Saran, Directory of Census Operation, Odisha.
In India female population per thousand of male remain always below, the sex ratio in Odisha though depict an increasing trend during the census year 1901 to 1921, subsequently declined from 1931 to1991, than register a marginal increase to 972 in 2001.But it is vividly clear that there was positive sex ratio in Odisha from 1901 to 1961 and than gender ratio register a negative trend. The national level figures recorded adverse sex ratio from 1901 to till recent census and has continued with a declined trend except in the year 1951, 1981 and 2001.It is pertinent to note that though the sex ratio in Odisha is better than national scenario but the gender ratio gap has widened during 1901 to 1921and than narrowed persistently. In the Population Census of 2011 it was revealed that the population ratio in India 2011 is 940 females per 1000 of males. The Sex Ratio 2011 shows an upward trend from the census 2001 data. Census 2001 revealed that there were 933 females to that of 1000 males. Since decades India has seen a decrease in the sex ratio 2011, but since the last two of the decades there has been in slight increase in the sex ratio one of the states which is showing a decreasing trend in the population of women 2011 and is a cause of concern is Haryana. The state of Haryana has the lowest rate of sex ratio in India and the figure shows a number of 877 of females to that of 1000 of males.
There are also states such as Puducherry and Kerala where the number of women is more than the number of men. Kerala houses a number of 1084 females to that of 1000 males. While Puducherry and Kerala are the only two states where the number of female is more than the number of men, there are also states in India like that of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra where the sex ratio 2011 is showing considerable signs of
improvement. Some facts related to the Sex Ratio in India follows, the main cause of the decline of the sex ration in India is due to the biased attitude which is meted out to the women. The main cause of this gender bias is inadequate education. Pondicherry and Kerala houses the maximum number of female while the regions of Daman and Diu and Haryana have the lowest density of female population.
Objective:
The objective of the paper is to (a) assess the literacy level of Females vis-à-vis males (b) to study various factors affecting women health, specifically poverty and (c) to analyse female work participation rate and their share in various government sponsored anti-poverty schemes with reference to Odisha.
LITERACY
Literacy level, if increases, it brings with a higher level of quality of living in the society. It is of greater importance if female literacy registers a positive growth.
It is one of the vital ingredients to achieve economic growth / development. Female education is seen to be important in process of lowering fertility and mortality.
Higher literacy rate brings higher life expectancy by reducing risk of health hazards. Dreze and Sen observed
“ education empowers and through empowerment affects larger social processes (Dreze and Sen, 1995).Gender wise literacy rate is one of indicator that determine how the female education has taken care of in the society to sustain future development. The United Nations Education and Social Council (UNESCO) in 1970 observed, “while the percentage of illiteracy among the total population is principal index of the level of education in a country, the relationship between figures for each sex becomes an index of equality of men and women”. The literacy rate in India and Odisha is presented below in Table-2.
Table-2: Literacy Rate in India and Odisha (Figures in Percent) Sl.
No
Year India Odisha
Persons Male Female Gap Persons Male Female Gap
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1951 18.33 27.16 8,86 18.3 15.80 27.32 4.52 22.8
2 1961 28.30 40.40 15.35 25.05 27.66 34.68 8.65 26.03
3 1971 34.45 45.96 21.97 23.99 26.18 38.29 13.92 24.37 4 1981 43.57 56.38 29.76 26.62 33.62 46.39 20.60 25.79 5 1991 52.21` 64.13 39.29 24.84 49.09 63.09 34.68 28.41 6 2001 65.38 75.85 54.16 21.69 63.61 75.95 50.97 24.98 7 2011 74.04 82.14 65.46 16.68 72.89 81.59 64.01 17.58 Sources: Census 1951-2001
Note: Census 1951-71, literacy rate relate to population 5 years and above and 1981-2001 relate aged 7 years and above. From 1981 Assam and 1991 Jammu and Kashmir excluded.
It is clear picture of education in India as well as in Odisha where female education has always been leg
behind male education. In Odisha both male and female education rate has been indicating a lower trend than India, but female education percent is more backward than males. The literacy rate gap between male and female show a decreasing trend in India after 1981 census but in case of Odisha the gap decreased
consistently after 1991. It has been realised that literacy is one of most required input to achieve development goal. Specifically female literacy bears greater importance to combat the ill impact of superstition, socio-cultural hazards, at the same time improving health, nutrition and quality of living standard of the family in particularly and society in general. With out proper steps to fight the menace of female illiteracy and equalizing their literacy at par with males it would be remote possibility to attain growth.
Therefore, it is required to know the age group composition of female population in order to focus target to improve their health, education, skill, and building their career during various stages of life.
Table-3 Female Population According to Age Group (in millions),2001.
Sl.
No
Age group (Stages) India Odisha
0 1 2 3
1 0-6 ,Early child hood 78.82 2.61 2 0-19,Girl Child 220.40 7.74 3 11-18,Adolscent Girls 83.19 3.09 4 15-44, Reproductive
Age
228.89 8.59 5 15-59, Economically
Active
282.24 10.61
6 60+, Old Age 38.85 1.54
Source: C.S.O.(2007), Women &Men in India, Government of India.
Age group distribution of females in various stages of life requires different program and plan to be implemented in order to enhance their capabilities through improvement of education, provision of nutrition, medical aid ensuring better health services, developing skill, making them capable to carry out self- employment avenues effectively, steps to prevent maternal and infant mortality, security against physical and mental abuse and providing old age beneficiary schemes to those needy aged women under various schemes need to be evaluated.
Nutrition:
National Institute of Nutrition conducted a survey of the diet and nutritional status of sections of the population in 9 states including Andhra Pradesh, Gujurat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal during 2004-05. The consumption of all foods except roots and tubers was below the Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDI) in all the age/ sex groups irrespective of their physiological elements. The consumption of protective foods such as pulses, green leafy vegetables (GLV), milk and fruits, was grossly inadequate. The intake of micronutrients such as iron, vitamin-A, riboflavin and folic acid were far below the recommended levels across all the age groups. The nutritional status of children aged 1-5 years according to Gomez classification is given below.
Table-4 - Nutritional Status of Children 1-5 years Age group by Gender Gomez Classification (%), 2006
Sl . N o
State Gend
er
Samp le size
Nutrition Grades (NCHS Standards) Norm
al
Mild Mode rate
Sever e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Total of 9 States pooled
Boys 2458 13.3 44.0 38.2 4.6
2 Girls 2401 12.8 44.5 38.2 4.5
3 Poole
d
4859 13.0 44.2 38.2 4.5
4 Odisha Boys 294 11.9 42.2 40.1 5.8
5 Girls 331 7.6 43.8 43.8 4.8
6 Poole
d
625 9.6 43.0 42.1 5.3
Source: National Institute of Nutrition (2006) Diet and Nutrition Status of Population and Prevalence of Hypertension among adults in Rural Areas, Hyderabad, P-58.
The above table-4 portrays a adverse nutrition status of girls in Odisha than boys as compared to other states surveyed simultaneously.
The nutritional Status of women and children in India is not quite satisfactory and requires institutional intervention to achieve improvement. In spite of implementation of various food security programmes that have targeted vulnerable sections of society, like public distribution system(PDS), targeted public distribution System(TPDS), poverty alleviation schemes, employment generation in rural and urban areas, etc the benefits of these schemes does not seem to reach about 30 per cent of the population. Hence, more concerted efforts are required to bring about tangible change in the situation by adopting suitable approach.
Same time, one of the studies reveals that persons having Body Mass Index (BMI), calculated by taking the weight of a person in kilogram divided by the square metres of height, if the figure is less than 18.5 then the person would be undernourished and if the figure is 25 or more then the person is overweight or obese. The figures below normal and overweight women or obese in India reveals that 33.0 per cent of women 28.11 per cent of men is below normal ,the nutritional status of 40.5 per cent of women and 32.1 per cent of men in Odisha is below normal. Obese or overweight women in India are 14.8 per cent and 7.6 per cent in Odisha. The survey was conducted by International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) in the year 2006 (See National Family Health Survey or NFHS-3). There is further evidence to establish that the nutritional status of both male and female in Odisha is significantly below the national standards. In case of obese also Odisha is far below than the Country average, around half in per cent counts.
In order to further investigate the health status of women in India and that of Odisha one of indicator is prevalence of anaemia among pregnant women. Higher rate of prevalence of anaemia is a result of shortage of food component in dish available to pregnant women. Some
finding of the NFHS-2 and NFHS-3 summarised below in Table-5.
Table-5 - Anaemia among Pregnant women in the age group of 15-49.
Sl.
No
Indicator India Odisha
0 1 2 3
1 Ever married women with anaemia (%) 1998-99
51.8 63.0 2 Ever married women with
Anaemia (%) 2006. Total
56.2 62.8
3 Rural 58.2 64.0
4 Urban 51.5 56.4
5 Anaemia among pregnant women(2002)
39.0 38.0 6 Anaemia among pregnant
women (2006). Total
57.9 68.1
7 Rural 59.0 71.3
8 Urban 54.6 46.2
Source: International Institute for population Sciences (2000)-NFHS-2, NFHS-3 (2006),(2004)
National Dissemination Seminar on Reproductive and Child Health Project,( Phase-1, Round-2) Results, January-27-28, New Delhi.
From the results summarized in above table it is anaemia that prevailed in Odisha seems to be more than India in case of ever married women during 1998-99 and 2006.
But in case of pregnant women with anaemia during 2002 was 38.0 per cent in Odisha as compared to 39.0 per cent India, and during 2006 anaemia among pregnant women in India was 57.9 per cent as it was 68.1 per cent in Odisha. But what is more sensitive is that in rural segment anaemia among pregnant women was59.0 per cent in India as it was 71.3 per cent in Odisha whereas 46.2 per cent of pregnant women identified with anaemia as the figure for India was59.0.
This is a vivid example of widening rural urban gap in providing better opportunity to those who are living in urban area. In Odisha , figures on the basis of rural and urban gap is more significant than national context.
Further, the survey reveals that rural-urban gap also visibly more pronounced when the question of safe delivery assisted by medical officer, doctor, nurse, health personal arises. in India 48.3per cent of delivery cases attended by health service providers, it is 39.1 per cent in rural areas and 75.2 per cent in urban sector.
Similarly, in Odisha out of 46.4 delivery cases attended by medical practitioners, in rural areas 42.9 and in urban sector 68.9 per cent delivery cases assisted by qualified medical officer/staff. On the basis of NFHS-3 (2006) data institutional delivery cases in India was 40.7 per cent and it was 38.9 in Odisha. But the segregation of data on rural-urban sector pointed that in rural segment institutional delivery per cent was31.1 in India and 34.6 per cent in Odisha whereas 69.4 per cent in India and 65.0 per cent in Odisha institutional deliveries done in
urban sector. In rural Odisha institutional delivery is better than national rural cases.
In order to assess about health consciousness among expected mothers their antenatal visit for last birth, consumption of IFA tablets for 90 days and mothers received post natal care with in 20 days of delivery presented below in table-6. The findings of NFHS- 3conducted by International Institute for Population Sciences during 2006 exhibit to explain how rural-urban divide in India and in Odisha persists despite various measures have been taken to arrest such unhealthy disparity. Though, it was a sample survey such results provides basic inputs to take future policy, programs to initiate a much acceptable, feasible and effective health service delivery at each and every steps in every corner of the Country.
Table-6 - Antenatal and Postnatal Services availed by mothers in Rural and Urban sector in India and Odisha.(
Figures in Per cent) Sl.
no
Service indicators
India Odisha
Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Mothers who had at least 3 Antenatal visits for last birth
50.7 42.8 73.8 60.9 58.0 79.2
2 Mothers who consumed IFA tablets for 90 days when pregnanent
22.3 18.1 34.5 32.8 31.4 42.0
3 Mothers who received Postnatal care with in 20 days of delivery
36.4 28.1 60.7 38.3 35.9 21.5
Sources: NFHS-3, IIPS (2006)
In Odisha, women are availing better antenatal and postnatal services as compared to national figures. The percentage of ever married women aged 15-49 years who make decisions regarding their own health constitute 51.6 per cent in India and 38.6 per cent in Odisha indicate leg behind 13 per cent than national average.
WOMEN AND POVERTY SYNDROME:
Dorland‟s dictionary defines „syndrome‟ as a
„combination of symptoms resulting from a single cause or so commonly occurring together as to constitute a distinct --- entity‟. This definition encompasses the factors combine together to act in such a manner those females hardly free from the bondages that keep their condition worse on ground of gender biological
considerations. So there is no doubt that the Indian women face several handicaps relative to men not only in developing their potential but also with respect to physical survival. However we must strive to understand whether and how far their handicaps can be identified through a study of their income and/or expenditure or activity pattern. The preponderance of unpaid family work by women and the joint ness of household level production and consumption pose serious difficulties in a precise mapping of the true status of women. Also while considering the appropriate remedial policies to correct the intra household inequalities, we need to evaluate their feasibility in the overall framework of the limits of the public policy of which one finds painful reminders in everyday life( Visaria and Visaria 1985).
There is persuasive evidence to show that women are disproportionately represented among the poorer sections of the world‟s population, and that households maintained by women tend on balance to be poorer than households whose breadwinner is male (See study of Buvinic, 1983, Bruce and Lloyed, 1992). A study sponsored by International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) on rural poverty points out that;
“The total number of rural women living below the poverty line in developing countries was estimated in 1988 to be 564 million. This is represented an increase of 47 per cent above the numbers in 1965-70, as compared with 30 per cent for rural men below poverty line” (Jaziary et al, 1992).
Some studies has explored the extent to which market based institutions are themselves sites of gender based discriminations, so that women tend to be less successful than men in translating their labour and education into command over income and purchasing power (Beneria and Roldan, 1987, Humphre,1987, Appleton et al, 1990, Amsden, 1990).
Unfair advantages for men within domestic and market institutions interact with inequalities created by class relations, to ensure that women in poverty are generally among the most disenfranchised section of society.
Sometime these institutions do not lend themselves easily to attempts to alter their internal dynamics in the interests of equalizing the position of women and men.
Intra-household norms and relations belong in the
„private‟ domain and market-based institutions belong in the „public‟ domain need to be examined in context of policy intervention to achieve the goal of gender equality.
The marginal place assigned to women within development process can hardly be changed unless the existing norms, processes, practices and procedures which guide the overall development effort remain fundamentally unchanged. Instead, women only considered for income-generating activities serve to perpetuate a form of segregation within development policies, with productivity–related efforts targeted at men, and welfare-related efforts targeted at women (Rogers, 1980, Buvinic, 1986).
POVERTY REDUCTION MEASURES:
In order to maximize development effort equal opportunity to all categories of people is one of vital pre-condition needs to provide in each and every society. Provision of equal opportunity to all, which is leading factor towards establishment of an advanced society with peace and prosperity, at present, is practically non-existent. But, unfortunately in all modern and complex societies inequalities manifested in the form of wealth, status and power is in all-pervasive phenomenon. To rectify the discrimination prevailed in our social system, specifically against women; the empowerment of the category is widely recognized by great social thinkers, planners, development experts, researchers as an effective step. Empowerment implies the entitlement to acquire power through capacity building (Sen, 1992). For exercise of power women should become decisive in their domains of activity, both within and outside the family during the course of their social interactions (Schuler and Hashemi, 1993).Empowerment can be achieved through access to and control over resources and benefits (Overholt et al, 1985). But mere control over production resource is not enough; the ability to manage the productive resources is equally important (Korten, 1990). Empowerment is understood within the “development paradigm” as a panacea for the whole social imperfections arising due to high rate of population growth, Low literacy, propagation of intolerable social, cultural, religious and narrow divisive dogmas, misuse of natural resources, power hunkering attitude of leadership, division of human race on the basis of colour, caste, belief, community, nationality and gender wise discrimination against women. Empowerment is autonomy grow with economic independence, access to and controls over productive resources, implies self-assertion, motivate to resist collectively against the forces operating from time immemorial to obstruct their emancipation movements, which develops the skill of self-influence, ability to think and act. Realising the situation the civil society and governments of various provinces have been taking initiatives to correct the prevailing discriminatory steps to eliminate the undesirable elements those debilitated our social system.
Participation of poor in anti-poverty schemes and their ability to utilize resources in a best way to suit them to escape from poverty is a basic principle on which edifice of each policy rests. Poverty reduction programmes are generally seen in terms of meeting the basic needs of those who lack the resources to do for themselves. They may be designed to meet such needs either directly, through the provision of basic goods and services, or indirectly improving people‟s entitlement to basic resources. Problems specific to women have to be highlighted in considering issues like fuel, fodder and drinking water. Since these directly concern women, their involvement in the programmes related to such issues must be given prominence. The inter linkages among fuel , fodder and drinking water with other
aspects of development of women such as education, employment, food and nutrition, health and sanitation must be reorganized and integrated programmes worked out in macro basis for optimal utilization of existing resources. Various plans enshrined numerous welfare, protective, development schemes to rescue female community from the clutches of patriarchal system.
Over the years there has been a shift in the approach to development of women from welfare orientation to their empowerment. For empowerment of women one of the basic requirements is availability of credit and situation of credit market, let us discuss about it.
CREDIT MARKET:
The failure of formal financial institutions to reach the poor, has become abundantly clear, and particularly poor women face the major shock in securing loan from credit market. Even where such institutions sought to implement special credit schemes for the poor women, their participation has been far below the number targeted due to: (a) Lack of collateral securities; (b) Inflexible procedures, formidable paper work and handicap in understanding the process to secure loan; (c) Restricted scope of most women‟s enterprises; (d) The cost of transactions such as the expenses incurred in acquiring information about a group that is generally more isolated and less mobile and relatively high cost of administering small loans; (e) Conventional profit oriented schemes pursued by bankers relegated the social objective to uplift women from drudgery of household tyranny, and keep them inside the threshold of household; (f), lack of education, and market information to meet the present era of competition, are need to be analysed seriously.
From above situation it is ascertained that in order to get rid of such hurdles in the way to achieve progress, the
„Grameen Bank‟ of Bangladesh adopted a new mechanism in absence of material collateral securities such as „Social Collateral‟ and „The Uganda bank‟
emphasized on character based lending or any other alternative suitable mechanism to fulfill credit requirement may be considered carefully. Along with alternative collateral securities, simplified procedures based on minimal paper work, lower interest rate than commercial rate may be fixed and ensuring physical access is vital to carry out and execute the pace progress meant for female enterprise units.
It is mention worthy that low level of female literacy and the social constraints of those females reached puberty and those who are married are restrained to take any major decision such as higher education, skill up gradation programme, take up employment or economic activities with out support of male members of their household. Even if some of them allowed to take up training or skill building programmes , lack of time, energy and mobility for women already overburdened by domestic duties create a stumbling block in their path of progress. Lack of employment opportunities on
flexible working hours or part time work assignment to women makes their economic position weaker.
The „Swabalamban Programme‟ previously known as
„Women‟s Economic Programme‟ was launched in 1982-83 with assistance from Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) to provide training and skills to women to facilitate them to secure employment/ Self-employment. The aim is to make women self-reliant. Financial assistance is also provided to grantee organizations for hiring of training-cum- production sheds, training cost, machinery and equipments, stipend to trainees and remuneration for the trainers. Under this scheme autonomous bodies and NGOs provided with financial assistance to impart training to women , mostly in non-traditional trades and to ensure their employment opportunities in their localities. In case of Odisha 2400 beneficiaries during 2005-06 and 370 beneficiaries in 2006-07 (up to 31-01- 2007) created with Rs 8.16 lakhs released in favour of Government of Odisha.
Support to training and Employment Programme for women (STEP) was launched in 1987 to provide skills and knowledge to poor and asset less women in traditional occupations such as agriculture, animal husbandry, dairying, fisheries, handloom, handicrafts, khadi and village industries, sericulture, social forestry and waste land development for enhancing their productivity and income generation under this scheme.
Amount of Rupees sanctioned as on 15-01-2007 was 1089.90 Lakhs and creating 15565 women beneficiaries in India and in case of Odisha the Government of India sanctioned Rs. 34.96 Lakhs by which scheme 600 beneficiaries assisted as on 15-01-2007.
As per various studies credit requirement of poor women in unorganized sector at reasonable rate was more or less absent or so negligible that it could be identified in numbers. Such experience of credit provision in this sector had established a need for a quasi-informal credit delivery mechanism, which should be client friendly, have simple and minimal procedures, and have flexible repayment schedules with low transaction costs, both for the barrowers and lender.
Keeping this view in mind the Government of India established Rastriya Mahila Kosh o r RMK (National Credit Fund for Women) on 30th March 1993 to facilitate credit support and provide loans or micro- finance to women for setting up small or tiny enterprises. RMK mainly extend its support to through non-government organizations (NGOs) having experience of extending credit facilities to poor women, Women Development Corporations(WDCS), Women Cooperative Societies, and suitable State Government Agencies. It had an initial Corpus of Rs 310 million has been recycled four times and the cumulative loaning operation was Rs 1780 million in 2006.
Table-7 - Loans Disbursed under Rastriya Mahila Kosh and Beneficiaries (Rs in Lakhs)
Loan Sanctioned
Loans Disbursed
Recovery No. of Beneficiaries
1 2 3 4 5
India 17899.34 14207.09 9684.39 537652 Odisha 933.85 703.35 224.93 22580 Source- Ministry of Women and Child Development (2006) Annual Report: 2005-06, New Delhi, p-267.
WORK PARTCIPATION RATE:
Work participation rate among females in different activities is one of best indicator to explain their economic condition in which they are contributing their might to lead the country towards economic prosperity as well as their social-economic status in prevailing society. Workforce participation rate in India during different census years is depicted below in table-8 according to gender is noteworthy.
Table-8 - Workforce participation rate during different Census in India (Figures in per cent)
Sl.
No.
Variables 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 1 Total
Persons 34.2 36.7 37.7 39.3 39.8 Females 14.2 19.7 22.7 25.8 25.5
Males 52.8 52.6 51.6 51.9 53.3 2 Rural
Persons 35.3 38.8 40.2 42.0 41.8 Females 25.9 23.1 27.2 31.0 - Males 53.8 53.8 52.4 52.4 - 3 Urban
Persons 29.6 30.0 30.4 32.2 35.3 Females 7.2 8.3 9.7 11.6 - Males 48.9 49.1 49.0 50.9 - It is vividly revealed from above table-8 that female work participation rate has increased from 14.7 per cent in 1971 to 25.8 cent in 2001.The work participation rate of female in rural sectors has shown an increase from 25.9 in 1971 to 31.0 per cent in 2001 and in urban sector it has raised from 7.2 in 1971 to 11.6 per cent in 2001.Female work participation rate in India in 2011 shows declined to 25.5 from 25.8 in 2001 contrary to male WPR rise from 51.9 in 2001 to 53.3 in 2011.
Urban female WPR has been always remain much below than the rural counter parts due to (a) rural women are more active and involve in economic activities (b) introduction of various employment generating activities sponsored by government sector(c) socio-economic backwardness compelled rural women to work and (d) farm sector, non-farm rural activities also participated by females.
Table-9 -Distribution of Population, Workers and Work Participation rates in Odisha from 1961 to 2001 according to Gender.(Figures in „000)
Sl.No. 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 Total population: Persons (in000) 17549 21945 26370 31660 36805 41974
2 Males 8771 11041 13309 16064 18661 21212
3 Females 8778 10904 13061 15596 18144 20762
4 Workers: Persons 7662 6851 10000 11883 14276 17542
5 Males 5328 6108 7438 8642 9802
6 Females 2333 743 2562 3241 4474
7 Main workers: Persons - - 8624 10377 9589 10708
8 Males - - 7208 8490 8005
9 Females - - 1416 1887 1585
10 Marginal-workers: Persons - - 1376 1505 4687 6834
11 Males - - 230 150 1797
12 Females - - 1146 1355 2890
13 Work Participation Rate: Persons 43.66 31.22 38.01 37.53 38.79 41.8
14 Males 60.75 55.32 55.86 53.79 52.53
15 Females 26.58 6.81 19.81 20.79 24.66
Proportion of women in TW 30.45 10.85 28.81 27.31 31.35 32.15
Sources: Various Census Publications
It is prudent to produce here about the concepts used in various censuses to collect data on working population.
Economically active group and inactive group of population, in general, referred as working and non- working population. From 1901 to 1951 “the means of Livelihood” approach was adopted. During 1901 and
1921 the terms used were “workers” and “dependants”.
The worker term replaced to “earners” and “dependants”
classified in to “working dependant” and “non-working dependant” in 1931.In 1951 the categories were “self- supporting persons”, “earned dependants” and “non- earning dependants”. In 1961 and onward there was a
shift to the labour force approach according to which a person was treated as a “worker”. During 1961 census the term “worker” embraces both main and marginal worker but in 1971 the concept of “worker” includes only “main worker” and those marginal workers were included in “non-workers”. In 1981 “work” has been defined as participation in any economically productive activity, may be physical or mental, effective supervision and direction of work. So the “main worker”
was those were worked for at least six months, 183 days or more and those who have worked any time at all during the last year but less than six months were categorized as “marginal worker”.
It is vividly clear that in 1971 only main workers figure were collected to represent as worker without taking into consideration of those worked and contributed to economy not worked for specified period to be included in main categories.
The various round of National Sample Survey (NSS) conducted in India from time to time contained data on labour force participation and workforce participation percent of males and females in rural as well as in urban sector mentioned in table-9 and 9-A. Labour force participation rate (LFPR) and work force participation rate (WFPR) estimated on the basis of current daily status (CDS) in per cent during various NSS rounds would be helpful to derive fruitful results on the basis of gender position in society. There are four different concepts used in India to identify a person who is working in reference period of preceding 365 days from the date of survey, such as Usual Principal Status (UPS), Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status (UPSS), Current Weekly Status (CWS), and Current Daily Status (CDS).
Usual Principal Status (UPS):
The UPS reflects a person is belonging to this category of labour, if he/she had been either working or looking for work during 183 days or more during the 365 days preceding the survey. However, this measure unable to catch the figure in its jurisdiction to those who were unemployed for six months or more, and those who were working intermittently, either because of the
pattern of work in the household farm/enterprise or due to other economic compulsions. Usual Principal and Subsidiary Status (UPSS)
The UPSS concept introduced to include those persons who were not worked for more than six months as in case of UPS measurement. In 61st NSS Round Survey, all those who were either un-employed or out of labour force but had worked for at least 30 days over the reference period were treated as subsidiary workers. In earlier Rounds, no such minimum cut off time was prescribed. Those who were outside the labour force on the basis of principal status but included in the subsidiary status of labour considered to be in the UPSS labour force.
Current Weekly Status (CWS)
This concept introduced in India to compare with International Scenario. Under the CWS, a person is classified to be in labour force, if he/she has either worked or is seeking and/or available for work at least one hour during the reference period of one week preceding the date of survey. But the modified CWS (MCWS) based on major time criterion as had been used by Prof. Pravin Visaria. It fallows a two step procedure.
First, it assigns person to the labour force if the majority of their half days were in the labour force. Second, with in the labour force, it uses the majority time principle to classify individuals among the two activity statuses, employed and unemployed. The concept is more acceptable as to focus a person with a significant involvement in the labour force and in work or unemployment.
Current Daily Status (CDS)
The Dantwala Committee proposed the use of CDS rates for studying intensity of work. The employment status computed on the basis of the information on employment and unemployment recorded for the fourteen half days of the reference week. An hour or more but less than four hours of work is taken as half intensity and four hours or more is taken as full intensity. It embodies complete information of time utilization.
Table-10.- Labour force participation rates under different concepts (Per Thousand Participation Rates)
LFPR Males Females Persons
1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05 1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05 1993-94 1999-2000 2004-05
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Rural
UPS 549 533 546 237 235 249 398 387 401
UPSS 561 540 555 330 302 333 449 423 446
CWS 547 531 545 276 263 287 415 400 418
MCWS 539 522 537 254 240 265 401 384 403
CDS 534 515 531 232 220 237 387 370 387
Urban
UPS 538 539 566 132 126 148 345 342 366
UPSS 543 542 570 165 147 178 363 354 382
CWS 538 539 566 152 138 168 355 347 375
MCWS 535 535 564 143 129 159 349 341 370
CDS 532 528 561 132 123 150 343 334 364 All
UPS 546 535 551 211 208 224 384 376 392
UPSS 556 540 559 290 263 294 423 406 430
CWS 555 533 550 245 231 257 400 386 407
MCWS 538 525 544 227 212 238 388 373 395
CDS 533 518 539 208 196 215 376 361 381
Sources: computed from NSSO 50th, 55th and 61st Round on Employment and Unemployment.
It gives a clear picture of backwardness of female labour force participation in all methods of measurement adopted by NSSO survey conducted during 50th, 55thand 61st round on employment and unemployment in the year 1993-94, 1999-2000 and2004-05. The labour force
participation rate among females remain nearly below in and around fifty percent as compared to that of males.
Rural female participation rate is better than their counterpart inhabited in urban areas .
Table-11.- Labour force Participation Rate (LFPR) and Work force participation rate (WFPR) in India as per various NSS rounds.
Sl.
No.
NSS Round year
Labour force Participation rate (LFPR) Work force Participation rate (WFPR)
Rural Urban Rural Urban
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 1983 52.7 21.9 52.7 12.1 48.2 19.8 47.3 10.6
2 1993-94 53.4 23.2 53.2 13.2 50.4 21.9 49.6 12.0
3 1999-2000 51.5 22.0 52.8 12.3 47.8 20.4 49.0 11.1
4 2004-05 53.1 23.7 56.1 15.0 48.8 21.6 51.9 13.3
From the above table-11 exhibit that LFPR and WFPR females has been trailing far behind males both in rural and urban sectors. In urban areas the figures for female in LFPR and WFPR is too low than their counterpart in rural areas. As the above table depicts per cent figures on the basis of data collected for current daily status, it is very simple to draw conclusion and therefore need no further analysis.
Census of India, 2001 shows that of the total work force of 40.22 crores constitute of 68.4 per cent of males and 31.6 per cent of females but of total main workers, 23.3 per cent and 60.9 percent of marginal workers are women. In Odisha there were 1.4 crores of people
constituting total work force 31.3 per cent of them were women. Main workers as per 2001 census were 9589269 and distribution of the category according to gender revealed that 83.5 per cent were males and 16.5 were females. Similarly, marginal workers constituted of 38.3 males and 61.7 percent of females. So it is a fact that established that there is something going wrong with our system as women is still not getting equal opportunities with male members.
In order to look in to the employment of women in organized sector, in both public and private organizations it is better to present data on employment in fallowing table-12.
Table-12.- Employment in Organised Sector (Both Public and Private Sector) in India by Sexes (Fig. in lakh persons as on 31st March) in India.
Sl.no. Year Public Sector Private Sector Both Public and Private Sector Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 1971 98.70 8.60 107.30 56.80 10.80 67.60 155.50 19.30(11.0) 174.80 2 1981 139.80 14.90 154.70 61.00 12.90 73.90 200.50 27.93(12.2) 228.43 3 1991 167.10 23.47 190.57 62.42 14.34 76.76 229.52 37.81(14.1) 267.33 4 1994 168.80 25.65 194.45 63.41 15.89 79.30 232.21 41.54(15.2) 273.75 5 1995 168.66 26.00 194.66 64.31 16.28 80.59 232.97 42.28(15.4) 275.25 6 1996 167.94 26.35 194.29 67.20 17.92 85.12 235.14 44.26(15.8) 279.41 7 1997 168.31 27.28 195.59 67.77 19.09 86.86 236.08 46.37(16.4) 282.45 8 1998 166.55 27.63 194.18 67.37 20.11 87.48 233.92 47.74(16.9) 281.66 9 1999 166.04 28.11 194.15 66.80 20.18 86.98 232.84 48.29(17.2) 281.13 10 2000 164.57 28.57 193.14 65.80 20.66 86.46 230.37 49.23(17.6) 279.60 11 2001 162.79 28.59 191.38 65.62 20.90 86.52 228.40 49.49(17.8) 277.89 12 2002 158.86 28.87 187.73 63.83 20.49 84.32 222.71 49.35(18.1) 272.06 13 2003 156.75 29.05 185.80 63.57 20.64 84.21 220.32 49.68(18.4) 270.00
14 2004 153.07 28.90 181.97 62.02 20.44 82.46 215.09 49.34(18.7) 264.43 15 2005 150.86 29.21 180.07 63.57 20.95 84.52 214.42 50.16(19.0) 264.58 16 2006 130.66 30.03 160.69 88.05 21.18 109.23 218.71 51.21(19.0) 269.92
17 2007 - - 158.70 - - 114.07 - - 272.77
18 2008 - - 157.06 - - 118.43 - - 275.49
19 2010 - 31.96 - - 26.63 - - 58.59 -
20 2011 - 31.71 - - 27.84 - - 59.55 -
Note: Figures in Parentheses represent to per cent to total.
Source: Economic Survey 2007-2008, Government of India P,A-52.
The table-12, reveals that there has been an increasing trend in composition of women in organized sector employment. In 1971, per cent of women in organized sector was 11.0, in 1981 it increased to 12.2 and in 1991, per cent of women in organized sector of employment was 14.1 has increased to 19.0 per cent in 2005. In1991, per cent of women employed in public sector was12.3 and has increased to16.2 percent in 2005 similarly,
women constituted 18.7 per cent in 1991 of total employment in organized private sector and its share was increased to24.8 in 2005. Women employment in organized sector as a proportion to men is better in private than public sector.
In Odisha, women employment in organized sector is depicted below in table-11.
Table-13. - Women employment in organized sector in Odisha (as on 31st March) (Figures in „000) Sl. No. Year Public Sector Private Sector Both public and Private Sector
Total Women Total Women Total Women
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 1985 565 37(6.5) 102 12(11.8) 667 49(7.4)
2 1986 594 39(6.6) 98 11(11.2) 692 50(7.3)
3 1987 608 42(6.9) 100 11(11.0) 708 53(7.5)
4 1988 625 46(7.4) 105 12(11.4) 730 58(7.9)
5 1989 630 48(7.6) 104 12(11.5) 735 60(8.2)
6 1990 660 54(8.2) 110 13(11.8) 770 67(8.8)
7 1991 683 60(8.8) 102 13(12.7) 786 73(9.2)
8 1992 689 61(8.9) 104 13(12.5) 793 74(9.4)
9 1993 699 68(9.7) 80 9(11.2) 779 77(9.9)
10 1994 705 71(10.1) 94 12(12.4) 799 83(10.3)
11 1995 710 74(10.4) 96 12(12.0) 806 86(10.6)
12 1996 776 73(9.4) 96 13(13.4) 872 86(9.9)
13 1997 713 79(11.2) 97 11(11.3) 810 90(11.1)
14 1998 713 82(11.6) 99 11(11.1) 812 93(!1.5)
15 1999 708 83(11.7) 93 10(11.1) 802 93(11.5)
16 2000 711 89(12.5) 90 10(11.5) 798 99(12.4)
17 2001 717 92(14.1) 89 10(11.2) 806 102(12.6)
18 2002 692 93(13.4) 76 10(13.1) 768 103(13.4)
19 2003 680 96(14.1) 87 10(11.5) 767 106(13.8)
20 2004 657 96(14.6) 89 10(11.2) 746 106(14.3)
21 2005 655 100(15.3) 90 11(12.2) 745 111(14.9)
22 2006 627 100(15.9) 89 11(12.3) 716 111(14.9)
23 2007 598 92(15.4) 90 10(11.1) 688 102(14.8)
24 2008 598 103(17.2) 102 9(8.8) 700 112(16.0)
25 2009 619 103(16.6) 116 11(9.5) 735 114(15.5)
26 2010 608 106(17.4) 123 12(9.8) 731 119(16.2)
27 2011 605 109(18.0) 117 12(10.3) 722 121(16.8)
N.B. Figures in parentheses represent per cent to respective total.
Sources: Economic Survey, Government of Odisha, various Issues.
Table-13 brings out the employment scenario in organized sector in Odisha along with number of women employed and per cent share of women during period from 1985 to 2007.Women employment in organized
sector was 7.4 per cent in 1985, it was 6.5 in public sector and 11.8 per cent in private sector. During the year 1998 per cent of women employees in public sector exceeds in per cent of employment in private sector.
There is an improvement in employment position of women in organized sector and specifically in public sector from 2002 and onwards. In public sector absolute
figure of employees has been declining consistently from 1997 except during the years 2000 and 2001.Private sector also not enhancing employment as the figures indicate from 1992 and there after.
Statistics on women in India (2003) found that woman works for 457 minutes in a day while a male works for 391 minutes indicating female work time is 117 per cent of male work time. Per cent of work time on market activities and non-market activities has shown that 35 per cent of work time of a female attended to market activities whiles a male worker indeed spent 92 per cent of total work time, and in non-market activities a male spent only 8 per cent of his total work time as compared to a female who spent 65 per cent of her total work time in non-market activities.
Human Capital and women:
The World Development Report 2007 defines “human capital” as “broad range of knowledge, skills, and capabilities that people need for life and work‟.
Traditionally human capital refers to the education and health levels of people as they affect economic activity.
In addition to this traditional notion, the report highlights skills and capabilities required for successful living. These fall under three main categories; jobs, family and community. Under jobs a range of skills and capabilities required to obtain and retain a job above and beyond the technical competence to do the job, such as, self-discipline and team work. Under family is health such skills as good parenting and managing or resolving conflict. Under community are the skills and capabilities involved in belonging to a community, enjoying its privileges and protections and living up to its
obligations.”(The World Development Report 2007, P- 28)
Good health, education, skill, socio-cultural conducive atmosphere, opportunities to utilize own potency in the field of work, involvement in decision making, and freedom in choice of securing livelihood matters with self-respect would definitely create an environment of sustainable development of women in turn it may help to grow human capital in society. There should be proper balance between individual interest and community needs at present as well as requirement of future generation. A proper and well conceived plan to achieve gender justice with out jeopardising future prospect of community is also an essential criterion to be considered in this context.
In such a situation, it is most essential to understand the early ages of education entering workforce before attaining and acquiring proper education or training needs to be analysed. Once young people are in the labour market, they begin to reap the fruits of earlier investment in education and health and continue to develop skills required for a productive livelihood. A successful transition to work for today‟s many young people can accelerate poverty reduction through better allocation of their labour, and boost economic growth.
Some youth, however, encounter road blocks; some go to work too early, other can not enter the work force, still others get stuck in low productivity work. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that despite an 11 per cent reduction in the incidence of child labour between 2000 and 2004, 218 million still trapped in child labour. The situation of children in India can be more precisely presented in a table-14.
Table-14.- Age GroupWise Enrollment economically active / LFPR in India as on 2000.
Sl.
No.
Indicator Enrolment rates (Age Groups)
Economically active% of children ages 7-14
LFPR ages 15-24
Un-employment rate ages 15-24
Neither in labour force nor in school 12-14 15-17 18-24
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Total 71 51 16 5.2 44.3 - 29.2
2 Males 77 57 21 5.3 63.0 8.4 5.1
3 Females 65 43 11 5.1 24.1 7.0 55.3
Source: World Bank (2007) World Development Report- 2007 P-272, 274,275.Washington D.C.
Enrolment rates according to different age-group, economically active children in the age group of 7-14, labour force participation rate, unemployment rate in between 15-24 ages as well as during the period those who were neither in labour force nor in school show that females left far behind males. The condition seems to be worse for females as their per cent was 55.3 in categories of those neither in labour force nor in school, whereas the figures for male category was 5.1.
In order to fight against the most ridiculous situation of poverty, keeping an eye at the vulnerable group of people and with a special attention to women, the Government of India pursued vigorously various schemes, for creating number of projects to generate employment and income. Such schemes, specially
designed for uplifting poor people from the clutches of poverty. Several programmes have been implemented by the Government of India to combat poverty and the conditions of rural poor embraces, both individual up gradation of skill, generation the opportunities to secure employment in developing own resources and / or supplementing the family income by working in various wage work/ piece work schemes implemented in and around their villages. Therefore, in order to know the share of women in employment generated under poverty alleviation programmes in rural areas portrayed below in table-15 to depict the picture of women participation in various activities/ employment generation schemes and self employment programmes already implemented from 1985-86 to 1999-2000 by the Government of India to
eliminate poverty among weaker sex and uphold the directives of state policy enshrined in the constitution to achieve equality of rights.
Table-15.- Share of women in employment created under various Anti-poverty programmes in rural areas in India.
Year Total Number of Families assisted under Self
employment (million families)*
Per cent share of Wome n.
Total number of person days generated under wage
employment programmes (million person days)
Per cent share of Women
1 2 3 4 5
1985- 86
3.2 11.5 564.0 9.7
1986- 87
3.9 16.6 701.5 15.5
1987- 88
4.4 20.8 674.9 18.1
1988- 89
4.0 24.5 691.5 20.8
1989- 90
3.6 27.0 864.4 22.0
1990- 91
3.1 32.3 873.8 24.6
1991- 92
2.8 35.2 809.2 24.0
1992- 93
2.3 35.2 782.1 24.7
1993- 94
2.8 35.5 1075.3 22.8
1994- 95
2.5 35.4 1225.7 22.3
1995- 96
2.3 34.2 1239.4 29.7
1996- 97
1.7 31.4 730.1 30.5
1997- 98
1.8 35.8 639.4 33.4
1998- 99
0.6 34.7 221.0 27.9
1999- 2000
0.37@ 44.1 137.0 27.1
*Includes Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM).
**Wage work programmes comprising of National Rural Employment Programme (during 1985-89), Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP), 1985-89, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (since 1989-90), Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS), since1993-94, Jawahar Gram Samrdhi Yojana (JGSY), 1999-2000.
@ Swarna Jayanti Swarozgar Yojana.
Source: Department of Rural Employment and Poverty Alleviation, Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment, Government of India, New Delhi.
To ensure participation of women in various development schemes made and implemented by the government of India and Odisha as per guidelines of schemes defined and contained proportion of female beneficiaries to total number of beneficiaries of particular scheme. Armed with statutory sanction of
inclusion of female to be represented in different schemes targeting improvement of their economic, social and self-assertion capability to get rid of traditional shackles of slavery due to gender get rejuvenating energy to break the vicious circle aimed at to keep females always in a state of bondages and suffering. The implementing authority/agency is allocating the scheme benefits to various groups as per rule of the particular scheme guidelines. There is very rare or no scope to contradict the rule with out proper instruction obtained from the government explaining the condition prior to take any other alternative seems to be fit for prevailing situation. It is felt that with out taking each and every category/section of people to involve in development programmes implemented for the welfare of society to attain at the pre-determined goal would not be succeed to deliver the benefits as planned. Before floating of any scheme, grass root reality must be taken care of. Definite goal with a mission spirit to achieve, require organized effort and performance, which is precondition for success. Notwithstanding, any contradiction may cause derailment of the motion and movement to reach at the project goal. Provision to demarcate the share of females to be included in particular scheme of self-employment or wage- employment or providing subsidized shelter, food-stuffs, goods and services has been treated as a positive step towards removing the barriers on ground of sex. Not only these steps remove the discrimination on ground of sex but also contribute the fruits of their efforts to achieve overall development of the society as a whole.
TABLE -16 - FEMALE BENEFICIARIES UNDER SGSY SCHEMES IN ODISHA
Sl No
Year Total Beneficiaries
Female Beneficiaries
% of Female beneficiaries to total beneficiaries
0 1 2 3 4
1 1999- 2000
71034 21026
29.60 2 2000-
2001
86171 21347
24.77 3 2001-
2002
59233 19842
33.50 4 2002-
2003
48925 21149
43.23 5 2003-
2004
59289 38667
65.22 6 2004-
2005
65712 55952
85.15 7 2005-
2006
63904 57307
89.68 8 2006-
2007
68687 63126
91.90 9 2007-
2008
87171 77972
89.45 10 2008-
2009
106271 65380
61.52 11 2009-
2010
131334 113355
86.31 12 2010-
2011
138596 119905
86.51 Source: Panchayatiraj Department, Government of Odisha.
