In quantitative studies, researchers move from the beginning point of a study (the posing of a question) to the end point (the obtaining of an answer) in a reasonably linear sequence of steps that is broadly similar across studies (Figure 3.1). This section describes that flow, and the next section describes how qualitative studies differ.
Phase 1: The Conceptual Phase
The early steps in a quantitative research project typically involve activities with a strong conceptual or intellectual element. During this phase, researchers call on such skills as creativity, deductive reasoning, and a grounding in existing research evidence on the topic of interest.
Step 1: Formulating and Delimiting the Problem
Quantitative researchers begin by identifying an interesting, significant research problem and formulating good research questions. In developing research ques- tions, nurse researchers must pay close attention to substantive issues (Is this
Phase 1:
The conceptual phase
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Formulating and delimiting the problem Reviewing the related literature Undertaking clinical fieldwork Defining the framework/developing conceptual definitions
Formulating hypotheses
Phase 2:
The design and planning phase
Phase 3:
The empirical phase
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Selecting a research design Developing intervention protocols Identifying the population Designing the sampling plan
Specifying methods to measure research variables
Developing methods to safeguard subjects Finalizing the research plan
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Collecting the data
Preparing the data for analysis
Phase 4:
The analytic phase
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Analyzing the data Interpreting the results
Phase 5: The dissemination phase
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Communicating the findings Utilizing the findings in practice
Flow of steps in a quantitative study.
FIGURE 3.1
research question important, given the evidence base?); theoretic issues (Is there a conceptual context for enhancing understanding of this problem?); clinical issues (Could study findings be useful in clinical practice?); methodologic issues (How can this question best be answered to yield high-quality evidence?); and ethical issues (Can this question be rigorously addressed in an ethical manner?).
Step 2: Reviewing the Related Literature
Quantitative research is typically conducted within the context of previous knowl- edge. Quantitative researchers typically strive to understand what is already known about a topic by undertaking a thorough literature reviewbefore any data are collected.
Step 3: Undertaking Clinical Fieldwork
Researchers embarking on a clinical study often benefit from spending time in appropriate clinical settings, discussing the topic with clinicians and health care administrators, and observing current practices. Such clinical fieldwork can pro- vide perspectives on recent clinical trends, current diagnostic procedures, and rel- evant health care delivery models; it can also help researchers better understand clients’ perspectives and the settings in which care is provided.
Step 4: Defining the Framework and Developing Conceptual Definitions
When quantitative research is performed within the context of a conceptual frame- work, the findings may have broader significance and utility. Even when the research question is not embedded in a theory, researchers must have a conceptual rationale and a clear vision of the concepts under study.
Step 5: Formulating Hypotheses
Hypothesesstate researchers’ expectations about relationships among study vari- ables. Hypotheses are predictions of expected outcomes; they state the relation- ships researchers expect to observe in the study data. The research question identi- fies the concepts under investigation and asks how the concepts might be related; a hypothesis is the predicted answer. Most quantitative studies are designed to test hypotheses through statistical analysis.
Phase 2: The Design and Planning Phase
In the second major phase of a quantitative study, researchers make decisions about the study site and about the methods and procedures to be used to address the research question. Researchers typically have considerable flexibility in design- ing a study and make many methodologic decisions. These decisions have crucial implications for the integrity and generalizability of the study findings.
Step 6: Selecting a Research Design
The research designis the overall plan for obtaining answers to the questions being studied and for handling various challenges to the worth of the study evidence. In designing the study, researchers decide which specific design will be adopted and what they will do to minimize bias and enhance the interpretability of results. In quantitative studies, research designs tend to be highly structured and controlled.
Research designs also indicate other aspects of the research—for example, how often
data will be collected, what types of comparisons will be made, and where the study will take place. The research design is the architectural backbone of the study.
Step 7: Developing Protocols for the Intervention
In experimental research, researchers create the independent variable, which means that participants are exposed to different treatments or conditions. An inter- vention protocolfor the study would need to be developed, specifying exactly what the intervention will entail (e.g., who would administer it, how frequently and over how long a period the treatment would last, and so on) andwhat the alternative condition would be. The goal of well-articulated protocols is to have all subjects in each group treated in the same way. In nonexperimental research, of course, this step is not necessary.
Step 8: Identifying the Population
Quantitative researchers need to know what characteristics the study participants should possess, and clarify the group to whom study results can be generalized—
that is, they must identify the population to be studied. A populationis all the indi- viduals or objects with common, defining characteristics. For example, the popula- tion of interest might be all adult male patients undergoing chemotherapy in Dallas.
Step 9: Designing the Sampling Plan
Researchers typically collect data from a sample, which is a subset of the popula- tion. Using samples is clearly more practical and less costly than collecting data from an entire population, but the risk is that the sample might not adequately reflect the population’s traits. In a quantitative study, a sample’s adequacy is assessed by the criterion of representativeness(i.e., how typical or representative the sample is of the population). The sampling planspecifies in advance how the sam- ple will be selected and how many subjects there will be.
Step 10: Specifying Methods to Measure Variables
Quantitative researchers must develop or borrow methods to measure the research variables as accurately as possible. Based on the conceptual definitions, researchers select or design methods to operationalize the variables and collect their data. A variety of quantitative data collection approaches exist; the primary methods are self-reports(e.g., interviews), observations(e.g., observing children’s behavior), and biophysiologic measurements.The task of measuring research variables and devel- oping a data collection planis a complex and challenging process.
Step 11: Developing Methods to Safeguard Human/Animal Rights
Most nursing research involves human subjects, although some involve animals. In either case, procedures need to be developed to ensure that the study adheres to ethical principles. Each aspect of the study plan needs to be scrutinized to deter- mine whether the rights of subjects have been adequately protected.
Step 12: Reviewing and Finalizing the Research Plan
Before actually collecting data, researchers often perform a number of “tests” to ensure that procedures will work smoothly. For example, they may evaluate the readabilityof written materials to determine if participants with low reading skills can comprehend them, or they may pretest their measuring instruments to assess
their adequacy. Researchers usually have their research plan critiqued by reviewers to obtain substantive, clinical, or methodologic feedback before implementing the plan. Researchers seeking financial support submit a proposalto a funding source, and reviewers usually suggest improvements.
Phase 3: The Empirical Phase
The empirical portion of quantitative studies involves collecting research data and preparing the data for analysis. The empirical phase is often the most time- consuming part of the study. Data collection may require months of work.
Step 13: Collecting the Data
The actual collection of data in a quantitative study often proceeds according to a pre- established plan. The researcher’s plan typically articulates procedures for training data collection staff, describing the study to participants, the actual collection of data (e.g., where and when the data will be gathered), and recording information.
Step 14: Preparing the Data for Analysis
Data collected in a quantitative study are rarely amenable to direct analysis. Pre- liminary steps are needed. One such step is coding, which is the process of trans- lating verbal data into numeric form (e.g., coding gender information as “1” for females and “2” for males). Another preliminary step involves transferring the data from written documents onto computer files for analysis.
Phase 4: The Analytic Phase
Quantitative data gathered in the empirical phase are not reported as a mass of numbers. They are subjected to analysis and interpretation, which occurs in the fourth major phase of a project.
Step 15: Analyzing the Data
To answer research questions and test hypotheses, researchers need to analyze their data in an orderly, coherent fashion. Quantitative information is analyzed through statistical analyses,which include some simple procedures (e.g., computing an average) as well as complex and sophisticated methods.
Step 16: Interpreting the Results
Interpretation is the process of making sense of study results and of examining their implications. Researchers attempt to explain the findings in light of prior evi- dence, theory, and their own clinical experience—and in light of the adequacy of the methods they used in the study. Interpretation also involves determining how the findings can best be used in clinical practice, or what further research is needed before utilization can be recommended.
Phase 5: The Dissemination Phase
In the analytic phase, researchers come full circle: the questions posed at the out- set are answered. The researchers’ job is not completed, however, until the study results are disseminated.
Step 17: Communicating the Findings
A study cannot contribute evidence to nursing practice if the results are not com- municated. Another—and often final—task of a research project, therefore, is the preparation of a research report that can be shared with others. We discuss research reports in the next chapter.
Step 18: Putting the Evidence into Practice
Ideally, the concluding step of a high-quality study is to plan for its use in practice settings. Although nurse researchers may not themselves be in a position to imple- ment a plan for utilizing research findings, they can contribute to the process by developing recommendations regarding how the evidence could be incorporated into nursing practice, by ensuring that adequate information has been provided for a meta-analysis, and by vigorously pursuing opportunities to disseminate the find- ings to practicing nurses.