The majority of characteristics (10 out of 15) as per the
■
DSM IV criteria used to formally diagnose an autism spectrum disorder involve communication deficits.
Use of augmentative communication systems
■
(devices, sign language, PECS) does not impede development of oral communication, and may, in fact, promote it.
Liquids are the least safe alternative when initiat-
■
ing feeding following traumatic brain injury due to delayed reaction times associated with cognitive level of recovery.
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5
Adaptive Sports and Recreation
Ellen S. Kaitz and Michelle Miller
Adapted sports for the disabled (DA) were born in the mid-twentieth century as a tool for the rehabilitation of injured war veterans. They have blossomed to encom- pass all ages, abilities, and nearly all sport and recre- ational activities, from backyards to school grounds to national and Paralympic competitions. The trend in recent years has been away from the medical and rehabilitation roots to school- and community-based programs focused on wellness and fitness, rather than on illness and impairment. However, rehabilitation professionals remain connected in a number of impor- tant ways. Sports and recreation remain vital parts of a rehabilitation program for individuals with new-onset disability. Furthermore, rehabilitation professionals may be resources for information and referral to com- munity programs. They may be involved in the provi- sion of medical care for participants or act as advisors for classification. As always, research to provide sci- entific inquiry in biomechanics, physiology, psychol- ogy, sociology, technology, sports medicine, and many related issues is a necessary component.
HISTORY
Sports and exercise have been practiced for millennia.
Organized activities for adults with disabilities have more recent roots, going back to the 1888 founding of the first Sport Club for the Deaf in Berlin, Germany.
The International Silent Games, held in 1924, was
the first international competition for DA athletes.
Deaf sports were soon followed by the establishment of the British Society of One-Armed Golfers in 1932.
Wheelchair sports are younger still, having paral- lel births in Britain and the United States in the mid- 1940s. Sir Ludwig Guttman at the Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Aylesbury, England, invented polo as the first organized wheelchair team sport. “It was the con- sideration of the over-all training effect of sport on the neuro-muscular system and because it seemed the most natural form of recreation to prevent boredom in hospital . . .” (1). Within a year, basketball replaced polo as the principle wheelchair team sport. In 1948, the first Stoke Mandeville Games for the Paralyzed was held, with 16 athletes competing in wheelchair basketball, archery, and table tennis. This landmark event repre- sented the birth of international sports competition for athletes with a variety of disabilities. The games have grown steadily, now comprising more than two dozen different wheelchair sports. The competitions are held annually in non-Olympic years, under the oversight of the International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sport Federation (ISMWSF).
While Guttman was organizing wheelchair sports in Britain, war veterans in California played basketball in the earliest recorded U.S. wheelchair athletic event.
The popularity flourished, and, a decade later, the first national wheelchair games were held. These games also included individual and relay track events. With the success of these games, the National Wheelchair
Athletic Association (NWAA) was formed. Its role was to foster the guidance and growth of wheelchair sports. It continues in this role today under its new name, Wheelchair Sports USA.
The U.S. teams made their international debut in 1960 at the first Paralympics in Rome. The term
“Paralympic” actually means “next to” or “paral- lel” to the Olympics. In the 40 years since, the num- ber and scope of sport and recreational opportunities has blossomed. The National Handicapped Sports and Recreation Association (NHSRA) was formed in 1967 to address the needs of winter athletes. It has more recently been reorganized as Disabled Sports USA (DS/USA). The 1970s saw the development of the United States Cerebral Palsy Athletic Association (USCPAA) and United States Association for Blind Athletes (USABA). In 1978, Public Law 95–606, the Amateur Sports Act, was passed. It recognized ath- letes with disabilities as part of the Olympic movement and paved the way for elite athletic achievement and recognition.
In the 1980s, a virtual population explosion of sport and recreation organizations occurred. Examples of these organizations include the United States Amputee Athletic Association (USAAA), Dwarf Athletic Association of America (DAAA), and the United States Les Autres Sports Association (USLASA; an associa- tion for those with impairments not grouped with any other sports organizations), the American Wheelchair Bowling Association (AWBA), National Amputee Golf Association, United States Quad Rugby Association (USQRA), and the Handicapped Scuba Association.
While the history of sports for the DA can be traced back a century, the development of junior-level activities and competition can be measured only in a few short decades. The NWAA created a junior divi- sion in the early 1980s that encompassed children and adolescents from 6 to 18 years of age. It has since established the annual Junior Wheelchair Nationals.
Junior-level participation and programming have been adopted by many other organizations, including the National Wheelchair Basketball Association (NWBA), DS/USA, and American Athletic Association of the Deaf (AAAD). Sports for youth with disabilities are increasingly available in many communities through Adapted Physical Education (APE) programs in the schools, inclusion programs in Scouting, Little League baseball, and others.