Generously cited, it contains an unprecedented compilation and description of 120 rating scales relevant to the assessment of all aspects of psychosis before and after treatment. Assessment of psychosis : reference book and rating scales for research and practice / [edited by] Flavie Waters, Massoud Stephane.
CONTRIBUTORS
Adrian Preda, MD, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, USA. Sommer, MD, PhD, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neurosciences, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands Sergio Starkstein, MD, School of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Western Australia; Fremantle Hospital, Australia.
PREFACE
The fourth part of the book provides a description of rating scales for the assessment of psychosis and psychotic symptoms. The full contact details of the corresponding author, and information on where to obtain the scales, are presented.
HISTORY OF CONCEPTS ABOUT PSYCHOSIS
Self-identity can be regained by asserting a unique individual identity (Humberstone, 2002) or work (Kennedy-Jones et al., 2005). The loss of such relationships causes great suffering (Wagner & King, 2005) and the ensuing loneliness can lead to suicide (Skodlar et al., 2008).
PHILOSOPHICAL AND PHENOMENOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOSIS
The third use of the term (used in this chapter), associated with Jaspers, understands phenomenology in its stronger, philosophical, continental sense (Parnas & Zahavi, 2002; Parnas & Sass, 2008). Moreover, "the [morbid] experience is not part of the historical continuity of his personality, nor is it at the center of his lived situation".
THE BRAIN
For example, a recent meta-analysis combined findings from different MRI modalities and pooled 43 studies comparing 965 individuals with FEP with 1,040 healthy controls (Radua et al., 2012). Findings from the multimodal meta-analysis of first-episode psychosis by Radua et al. Interestingly, the findings from this meta-analysis by Jardri and colleagues (2011) are comparable to the per-hallucinatory activations observed in 20 drug-naïve adolescents with FEP (Jardri et al., 2013).
In addition, the presence of neurological soft signs (NSS) may contribute, at least in part, to some of the structural impairments reported in FEP patients (Gay et al., 2013). Indeed, chronic cannabis consumption has been demonstrated to be associated with thickening of the amygdalar-hippocampal complex (Yucel et al., 2008), a structure also known to be involved in psychosis (Allen et al., 2012). The statistical gain is so high that subject-level inference becomes possible (Pettersson-Yeo et al., in press).
Non-psychotic self-reference is one of the criteria for schizotypal personality disorder in DSM-5. Suspicion and paranoid ideas form one of the criteria for schizotypal personality disorder in DSM-5 and for schizotypal disorder in ICD-10. In the DSM-5, excessive social anxiety is also one of the criteria for schizotypal personality disorder.
In the schizophrenia spectrum, there are two different forms of derealization: a global and an intrusive form (Parnas et al., 2005b). The term appersonation refers to the experience of qualities of another person that are absorbed into the patient. There is an overlap between Stage 2 symptoms and the self-consciousness disorders assessed in the EASE instrument (Parnas et al., 2005b).
HOW TO ASSESS PSYCHOSIS
Substance use is significantly over-represented in psychotic disorders, with smoking prevalence in two thirds (Cooper et al., 2012), alcohol abuse/. On the other hand, structured tools for assessing community violence risk have little clinical utility (Singh et al., 2011). While the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) has developed the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition (MATRICS) for assessing cognitive functioning in clinical trials in schizophrenia (Nuechterlein et al., 2008), this is not generally used for clinical assessment. routine and may not adequately cover executive functioning.
MR brain and anti-VGKC antibodies may be useful in distinguishing the diagnosis (Ahmad et al., 2010). Schizophrenia is overrepresented (over 5%) in people with developmental disabilities (Moran et al., 2008). Deficit syndrome and depression can be assessed with the Schedule for the Deficit Syndrome Scale (SDS; Kirkpatrick et al., 1989) and the Calgary Depression Scale for schizophrenia (CDSS; Addington, Addington & Schissel, 1990), respectively.
PSYCHOSIS-LIKE EXPERIENCES IN NON-CLINICAL POPULATIONS
PLE is more common in the general population than clinical psychotic disorders (van Os et al., 2009), suggesting that these experiences may occur as part of a non-pathological phenotype that lies on a continuum with psychotic disorder. A recent meta-analysis by van Os et al. 2009) reported a median prevalence of approximately 5% for PLE in the general population. First, more people experience PLEs than individuals receiving psychiatric diagnoses ( van Os et al., 2009 ), suggesting a symptomatic continuum between non-patients in the general population and patients with psychotic disorder.
However, it is additionally important to take into account possible limitations of self-report/screening instruments in the context of PLE. Validity and reliability of the CAPE: a self-report instrument for measuring psychotic experiences in the general population. Self-reported psychotic symptoms in the general population: results from the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey longitudinal study.
PSYCHOSIS IN PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS
In a large-scale study of the general population, Perälä et al. 2007) studied the lifetime prevalence of the most common psychotic disorders. Regarding lifetime prevalence of schizophreniform disorder, a study by Perälä et al. (2007) reported 0.07%. Lifetime prevalence of major depressive disorder ranges from 2.4% (in a European study, in a general population of 18,980 participants, Ohayon & Schatzberg, 2002) to 16.2% (in a large US epidemiological study, Kessler et al., 2003) .
In a small study with chronic PTSD patients, half of the sample reported auditory hallucinations (Anketell et al., 2010). The most commonly used interviews for the diagnosis of psychotic disorders are the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.; Sheehan et al., 1998), the Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN; 2006) and the Comprehensive Assessment of Symptoms and History (CASH; Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10.
AT-RISK MENTAL STATES
Similarly, awareness of the experience (insight) is required to successfully assess these altered experiences, but with the development of psychotic symptoms, insight into cognitive impairment is often lost (Gross, 1989). In the recent development of the DSM-5, one disorder considered (although not definitively accepted) was the psychosis risk syndrome, which roughly parallels the UHR criteria. Studies on the DMN in UHR groups are relatively few, but with interesting findings.
One of the most studied is N-acetylaspartate (NAA), a metabolite found at high concentrations in neuronal (gray matter) tissue, which is thought to be a marker of neuronal integrity (Moffett, Ross, Arun, Madhavarao & Namboodiri, 2007 ). There is significant geographic variation in the use of the major positive symptom scales. Validity of the prodromal risk syndrome for first psychosis: findings from the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study.
PSYCHOSIS IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
The association between psychotic experiences and multimorbidity has also been demonstrated in a clinical setting (Kelleher et al., 2013b). A number of interview instruments and questionnaires can be used to assess psychotic experiences in children and adolescents (see rating scales below). However, many of them do not include a detailed assessment of the characteristics of reported psychotic experiences.
Questionnaires have also been used in many studies to assess for psychotic experiences (see Table 9.1). This chapter presents a proposed systematic approach to the assessment of psychotic experiences in the clinic and in the community. Clinicopathological significance of psychotic experiences in nonpsychotic youth: Evidence from four population-based studies.
PSYCHOSIS IN GENERAL MEDICAL AND NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
In 2007, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders (NIND), along with the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), convened a working group to produce standardized diagnostic criteria for psychosis in PD (Ravina et al., 2007). Moreover, hallucinations in the context of poor insight are most common among PD patients with dementia (Fenelon et al., 2010), and patients can sometimes. Moreover, psychosis in PD is a risk factor for the development of dementia (Factor et al., 2003).
Postictal psychosis (PIP) occurs in approximately 2% to 8% of patients with epilepsy and is most commonly associated with temporal lobe epilepsy (Trimble, Kanner & Schmitz, 2010), but it has also been described in patients with primary generalized epilepsy. Devinsky et al., 1995). Matsuura et al., 2004) showed a similar profile of psychotic symptoms in both groups, although symptoms were more severe in patients with schizophrenia. They further suggested that a scale should be specifically designed to assess psychosis in Parkinson's, replacing the non-specific scale (Fernandez et al., 2008).
PSYCHOSIS IN OLDER ADULTS AND DEMENTIA POPULATIONS
Point prevalence estimates of psychotic symptoms in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are lower than in AD (Mendez et al., 2008). Sensory impairment, severity and type of dementia are among the strongest associations (Ballard et al., 1995). The prevalence of delusional disorder in later life is estimated at 0.04% (Copeland et al., 1998).
Paranoid ideation is the most frequent type of delusion associated with dementia (Rubin et al., 1988). Visual hallucinations are the most common perceptual disturbance (often seeing people/children in the house), especially in DLB (Tsuang et al., 2009). The presence of psychotic symptoms may also indicate a more favorable response to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT; Dombrovski et al., 2005).
AUDITORY HALLUCINATIONS
In the first cluster analysis study (Stephane et al., 2003), the phenomenological variables were clustered as follows: all 'control strategies' clustered, and with the 'self-attribution'. In the second study involving a larger number of patients (McCarthy-Jones et al., 2012), 'command', 'second person', 'repetitive', 'running commentary'. The investigation of phenomenological space with multidimensional scaling (Kruskal & Wish, 1978) showed a three-dimensional solution (Stephane et al., 2003), linguistic complexity (hearing words, hearing sentences, hearing conversations), inner space –locations in space , and self-other attribution of AH.
Furthermore, self–other misattribution and inside the head–outside the head are likely to be independent deficits (Larøi & . Woodward, 2007; Stephane et al., 2003). AH has been reported in patients with acquired deafness (Thewissen et al., 2005), in survivors of long solitary ordeals (Logan, 1993), in psychotic patients after periods of social withdrawal (Hoffman, 2008), and during sensory deprivation experiments ( Slade, 1988). This led to the development of the Beliefs About the Voices Questionnaire (BAVQ; Chadwick. & Birchwood, 1995), which was further revised for better sensitivity (Chadwick et al., 2000).
