دابآ فجن دحاو
Dr. Rastegari - Email: [email protected] - Tel: +98331-2291111-2488
Chapter 3
R ESEARCH P ROPOSAL
R ESEARCH M ETHODS
Objective
Research Process
Research Problem
Originality and Contribution
Research Variables
Research Hypothesis
Selecting a Problem
Problem Formulation
Writing of Research Problem
Evaluating Research Problem
Types of Research
Structure of Proposal
Research Process
Problem identification 1
Review Information 2
Data Collection 3
Analysis 4
Drawing Conclusions
5
Start Point of a Research
Choosing a General topic (area of research),
Narrowing the topic and collecting information
Explaining the topic Concepts
Identifying a Research Problem
Formulate and Evaluate your research problem
Find Variables in your research
Proposing a Hypothesis to solve the problem
Writing research Proposal
Finding a Problem
This marks the beginning of a research study and is the most difficult and important steps.
The steps are:
a. identifying and stating the problem in specific form
b. identifying the variables in the problem situation and defining them sufficiently
c. generating uncertain guesses (hypotheses) about the relation of the variables, or writing explicitly the questions for which answers are required; and
d. evaluating the problem for its researchability
Originality
Setting down a major piece of new information in writing for the first time
• Continuing a previously original piece of work
• Carrying out original work
• Providing a single original technique, observation, or consult in an otherwise unoriginal but competent
piece of research
• Having many original ideas, methods and
interpretations all performed by others under the direction of the postgraduate
Contribution
Contributions made to the field is identified – Gap filled
– Insufficient addressed
– Extending the boundary of knowledge
• Results of research could be applied for
“practice” / in wider field
• Implications for future research indicated – New domain
– Extension of work
SELECT A PROBLEM?
From past studies, i.e look for
– Solution already found in parallel situation
– Incomplete solution
– Result unclear, uncertain, arguable, etc.
Sources: books, journals, periodicals, annual reports….
NOTE
Need a Critical Study of the literature to:
– Define the problem
– Limit the problem area
– Avoid unnecessary repetition
– Search for new approaches
– Recommend suitable methods
SELECT A PROBLEM?
Consultation / interaction with others
– Ask experts in area of interest – industries, universities,…
Study current developments and trends – newspaper
– Examine the theoretical structure of the field
– Explore areas of dissatisfaction, public interest journal, magazine
- Websites of various organizations – govt., private sectors, Requests For Proposals
Brainstorming
Maintain an idea
notebook
Problems
Criteria Selecting for a Problem
Interest:
Your Own Interest
topic
Size:
Not too large
Economy:
Time, Cost Uniqueness:
Different method, design, or
analyses Capabilities
Limitationsand
PROBLEM FORMULATION
Begin with two important questions:
WHAT PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED?
HOW CAN THE PROBLEM BE SOLVED?
OBJECTIVES:
To focus on a subject for research
To examine a subject in multi facets Methods or Processes
Subdividing
Free Association
Questioning
Combined Approach
Methods
Free Association:
Write down words or phrases that occur to us as they come to mind, without worrying about order, spelling, usefulness, applicability, or any other judgment
Subdividing:
Divide the general area intoprogressively small units, subdividing it until one reaches a subject that is interesting to research
Combined Methods:
To combine the above approaches in formulating a research Problem (more satisfactory practice)WHO?
•People
WHY?
•Causes
•Reasons
•Results
Ask
Conceptual Map to Identify Problem and Purpose
1. Identify Large Topic Area
2. Determine what is attached. Make a conceptual map identifying related topics
3. Which part do you wish to explore now? (Fence off place in diagram)
4. What part is most important? Identify "real" problem area. What is the most important and possible relative to scope and scale of study?
5. Identify purpose area. What question most interests you about the purpose area that meets the
requirements of #4. Construct refined conceptual map of the purpose area.
Evaluating Research
Problem
Researchable
?
Worthwhile?
Too large?
Too narrow?
Specific?
Significant?
Too Broad?
Feasible?
Is the problem Feasible?
how long the research will take to accomplish
• important ethical constraints that need consideration
• can achieve the needed cooperation to take the project to its successful conclusion
• how significant are the costs of conducting the
research
Is the problem Researchable?
The questions include:
Has the problem been specified?
Is the problem amenable to research?
Is the problem too large?
How is the availability of the data?
Am I capable of solving the problem?
Will the result be Significant?
The questions include:
Will the result advance knowledge?
Will the research have some value?
Will the results be of interest to others?
General Questions asked by Examiners
• Why do you choose the research problem (topic) – who will benefit?
• What contribution to knowledge you feel your research makes?
• The appropriateness of your choice of methodology and data analysis
• Outcome that are publishable
• How the research can be extended (further
works?)
Variables
Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable
characteristic that varies. It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one person over time.
All experiments must have at least one independent variable and at least one
dependent variable. If a researcher does not have control over at least one variable then the study is not an experiment.
The value of Variables can be Quantities or qualities (how long, how match brave).
Independent Unwanted
Dependent
Moderator Control
Intervening
Types of Variables
Independent and dependent
(i.e., cause and effect)
Independent variables act as the "cause" in that they precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable
Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being influenced by an independent variable
Examples
The effect of Multimedia (independent variable)
on a new language teaching (dependent variable) Some situations do not lend themselves to the use of the
terms independent or dependent because it is difficult to discuss them in causal terms like:
The relationship between creativity and critical thinking, that is, do high levels of creativity cause higher levels of critical thinking or do higher levels of critical
thinking cause greater creativity?
Moderate and Intervening
MODERATOR VARIABLES
. . . affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of the moderator variable(s). moderator variables are measured and taken into consideration. (when they are not the major focus of the study) include the sex, age, culture, or language proficiency of the subjects (second independent variable).
INTERVENING VARIABLES
. . . refer to abstract processes that are not directly observable but that link the independent and
dependent variables. In language learning and teaching, they are usually inside the subjects' heads, including various language learning
processes which the researcher cannot observe.
Control and Unwanted
CONTROL VARIABLES
Language learning and teaching are very complex processes.
It is not possible to consider every variable in a single study.
Therefore, the variables that are not measured in a particular study must be held constant, balanced, or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables. Variables that have been controlled in this way are called control
variables.
UNWANTED VARIABLES
. . . are those factors in the research environment which may have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but which are not controlled. Extraneous or unwanted variables are dangerous.
They may damage a study's validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused by the independent and moderator variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken into consideration when interpreting results.
Theory
A theory is more complex than an hypothesis.
It comprises a set of related propositions that attempt to formally specify the relationship between a set of variables (which may be
observable, or theoretical) and an observable phenomenon.
A theory usually represents a summary of a
body of empirical data. Theories may be used to generate hypotheses, explain laws, or to build models, e.g. the theory of fuzzy logic.
Model
A model is a theory, or combination of
theories, which applies to a specific area or situation.
Often, the goal is to mathematically describe the relationship between a set of variables within a specific situation. Because models are applicable to certain situations they are usually less
parsimonious than are theories.
Law
A law describes a relationship between a set of variables and has been so strongly supported in so many studies that it is accepted as fact.
An example of a law related to business research is the ‘law of supply and demand’.
Hypothesis
It is an attempt to explain the nature of the relationship between the variables identified in the problem.
A hypothesis is an attempt to suggest a possible answer to the problem based on available facts or information that the researcher already knows.
Definition: The tentative proposition suggested as a solution to a problem or an explanation of some
observed state of affairs.
It is a statement of the problem solver’s expectations about a relationship between variables, within a problem.
هيضرف فيرعت و موھفم :
و يگنوگچ تيھام هرابرد هنادنمشيدنا نامگ اي سدح زا تسا ترابع هيضرف
رد ار ققحم هك، اھريغتم و ، ايشا ، اھ هديدپ نيب طباور و نيرتكيدزن صيخشت
ديامن يم كمك لوھجم فشك يارب ار نيرت لمتحم .
ديآ يم ديدپ ققحم براجت اي يلبق ياھ تخانش و يلك تامولعم ساسا رب هيضرف .
؟ تسيچ هيرظن و هيضرف توافت يصاخ دروم هب و دنتسھ يمومع و يلك ياياضق رب لمتشم اتدمع نيناوق و هيرظن هتشاد يدايز قيداصم دنناوت يم و دنرادن قلعت دنشاب
. تلاح هيضرف هك يلاح رد
رد يلو دوش يم يشان يلك ياياضق زا هك تسا قيقحت هلاسم صتخم و درادن يلك ورملق كي دريگ يم لكش صاخ
.
هك تسا نيا يروص رظانت زا روظنم :
لاوا : دوش نيودت هيضرف ، يعرف ياھلاوس دادعت هب .
ايناث : دريگ رارق نآ هب طوبرم لاوس لباقم رد هيضرف رھ .
درك يدنب تروص و نيودت ار قيقحت ياھ هيضرف اي هيضرف ققحم هكنآ زا سپ
هب ريز لودج ريظن يلودج ليكشت اب هاگنآ دزادرپ يم اھنآ يبايزرا
:
1
؟دراد ار قياقح نييبت و شجنس تردق هيضرف ايآ
2
؟داد دھاوخ ار هلاسم خساپ هيضرف نومزآ زا لصاح هجيتن ايآ
3
؟تسا مھف لباق و هداس هيضرف تروص ايآ 4
؟دراد يريذپ نومزآ تيلباق هيضرف ايآ
5
؟تسا هدش نايب يربخ هلمج تروص هب هيضرف ايآ 6
؟تسا هدش نيودت قيقحت زاين دروم ياھ هيضرف مامت ايآ
7
؟تسا هدش فيرعت يصاصتخا تاحلاصا و اھ هژاو ايآ
Type of Research
Fundamental
Discovery of Fact and Law
Presenting of New Knowledge Theoretical Research
Applied Application of Fundamental Research Solution of a Real Problems
Development
Development of a Process
Testing of a Theory in Real World
Localization of a Theory
Basic Research
used to explore the fundamental bases of behavior, without regard to how those bases are manifested in the real world.
aims to explain, predict, and describe fundamental bases of behavior. For example, a popular memory procedure is to have people respond to words on a computer screen as fast as possible (e.g., saying the word, pressing a key). This can tell researchers about how information in your memory is linked to other information. Does this ever happen in real
life? Outside of a really weird video game, probably not. Is it important? Yes, it can tell us a great deal about the processes of memory. This procedure is just one example but in fact, much of psychological research is basic research.
32
Applied Research
Unlike basic research, applied research aims to address and answer real-world problems.
Importantly, applied research is, like basic research, based on previous theory.
Examples of applied research topics include persuasion, eyewitness memory, clinical
treatments of psychological disorders, behavioral interventions for children with autism.
33
Common Methodologies
Methodologies are high-level
approaches to conducting research.
The individual steps within the methodology might vary based on the research being
performed.
Two commonly used research methodologies:
Quantitative.
Qualitative.
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Methodology Comparison
Quantitative
Explanation, prediction
Test theories
Known variables
Large sample
Standardized instruments
Deductive
Qualitative
Explanation, description
Build theories
Unknown variables
Small sample
Observations, interviews
Inductive
35
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Objective / purpose
•To gain an understanding of underlying reasons and
motivations
•To provide insights into the setting of a problem,
generating ideas and/or hypotheses for later quantitative research
•To uncover prevalent trends in thought and opinion
•To quantify data and generalize results from a sample to the population of interest
•To measure the incidence of various views and opinions in a chosen sample
•Sometimes followed by
qualitative research which is used to explore some findings further
Sample Usually a small number of non- representative cases.
Respondents selected to fulfil a given quota.
Usually a large number of cases representing the population of interest.
Randomly selected respondents.
Data collection Unstructured or semi-
structured techniques e.g.
individual depth interviews or group discussions.
Structured techniques such as online questionnaires, on-
street or telephone interviews.
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Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Data analysis Non-statistical. Statistical data is usually in the form of tabulations (tabs).
Findings are conclusive and usually descriptive in nature.
Outcome Exploratory and/or
investigative. Findings are not conclusive and cannot be used to make generalizations about the population of interest.
Develop an initial
understanding and sound base for further decision making.
Used to recommend a final course of action.
دابآ فجن دحاو
Dr. Rastegari - Email: [email protected] - Tel: +98331-2291111-2488
Structure of Proposal
Content of Research Proposal
Chapter 1 Introduction
Background of the problem (to give scholarly
background & rationale for the investigation)
Statement of the problem (to state in general &
specific way)
Objectives of the study (should be measurable)
Scope of the study (what is covered?)
Significant of the study (refers to the rationale for
the study & its relationship to theory, knowledge
or practice)
Content of Research Proposal
Chapter 2 Literature Review*
Review of relevant research to provide
rationale of the work eg:
Present unanswered questions, untried
method
Findings of others that is being challenged
and extended
* [Should give an up to date & critical appraisal of review of literature
Should demonstrate awareness of the debates &
issues raised
– for PhD, need to demonstrate that proposed work has not been
studied before – identify niche]
WHAT EXAMINERS LOOK FOR
Does the thesis contain a concise critical review of what
is currently known?
Have the deficiencies in our current knowledge been
THESIS EXAMINATION
-
clearly identified and the significance of addressing
them been established?
Is there sufficient background provided, so that
examiner can appreciate the research problems
that need to be tackled?
Are the objectives clear and justified?
Content of Research Proposal
Chapter 3 Research Methodology
Research Design & Procedure
Operational Framework
Subjects or data sources
Instrumentation & Data Analysis
Assumptions & Limitations
Research Planning & Schedule
• Chapter 4 Expected Findings and
Summary
• References
WHAT EXAMINERS LOOK FOR
Are the materials and methods detailed enough to
ensure that the work is reproducible?
Is the use of novel or non-standard methods or
approaches, fully justified?
Is the experimental design clearly articulated
appropriate to the objectives
Are the methods of statistical analysis appropriate?
WRITING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM (THESIS)
Normally in Chapter 1:
THE PROBLEM AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Introduction
Background of the problem
Statement of the problem
Purpose of the study
Theoretical framework
Statement of hypothesis or research question
WRITING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM (THESIS)
(IN GENERAL FORM)
Importance of study
Objective and Scope of study
Definition of terms
Summary
WHAT EXAMINERS LOOK FOR
Is the significance of the results fully explored in relation to current literature?
Are the substantive discussion points brought up with finality? Can one sees clearly what the candidate has
concluded?
Has the ownership of the contribution been established?
Something new?
دابآ فجن دحاو
Dr. Rastegari - Email: [email protected] - Tel: +98331-2291111-2488
