The Role of Empowerment and Organizational Identification

(1)

High-Performance Human Resource Practices and Volunteer Engagement: The Role of Empowerment and Organizational Identification

Charlotte Traeger¹ ^• Kerstin Alfes¹

ÓInternational Society for Third-Sector Research 2019

Abstract Volunteering research has long focused on the characteristics of volunteers and their motivations to highlight what drives them to dedicate their free time to good causes. More recently, researchers have turned their attention toward exploring the management practices that nonprofit organizations can implement to promote volunteers’ motivations and thereby improve their attitudes and performance. Our study contributes to this research by analyzing the extent to which combinations of human resource practices can be leveraged to influence volunteers’

level of engagement in their role. Survey results from 256 volunteers in five different nonprofit organizations in the Netherlands support our hypothesized model. Specifically, high-performance human resource practices are related positively to volunteer engagement, and volunteers’ organizational identification and psychological empowerment can account for a significant portion of variance in this relationship. Implications for research and the professional management of volunteers are discussed.

Keywords EmpowermentEngagement High- performance human resource practicesNonprofit organizations Organizational identification

Introduction

In order to provide services to those in need, nonprofit organizations (NPOs) rely to a large extent on the volunteering part of their workforce. In 2015, the US nonprofit sector represented 985.4 billion dollars of the US economy, equating to 5.4% of the nation’s gross domestic product (McKeever 2018). Similarly, the American Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 62.6 million people volun- teered in the USA between September 2014 and September 2015, with 52 median hours per person per year (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2016). However, data also suggest that volunteering has become increasingly episodic in that individuals dedicate their time for shorter time spells and on a more infrequent basis (Macduff 2005). NPOs therefore continuously face the challenge of having enough volunteers to carry out their activities. As a consequence, volunteer coordinators have called for professional management of this cohort, and scholars have started to explore characteristics of volunteers in order to give advice to NPOs about how to monitor volunteer satisfaction and ensure their continued services (Butt et al.2017; Maki and Snyder 2017).

Volunteering research has primarily focused on understanding the needs and motives of volunteers in order to identify what drives individuals to spend their free time on volunteering activities (Bussell and Forbes2002; Butt et al.

2017; Clary et al. 1998; Maki and Snyder2017; Weenink and Bridgman 2017). Clary et al.’s (1998) seminal work has been most influential in this regard as the authors developed a typology of six functional motives underlying individuals’ decision to volunteer. Inspired by this work, researchers have subsequently explored additional reasons for volunteering and aimed to develop more nuanced classifications to explain volunteer behavior. For example,

& Charlotte Traeger

[email protected] Kerstin Alfes

[email protected]

1 Chair of Organization and Human Resource Management, ESCP Europe Business School Berlin, Heubnerweg 8-10, 14059 Berlin, Germany

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-019-00135-2

(2)

Butt et al. (2017) added three additional motives to the six functional motives presented by Clary et al. (1998) and classified them into four directions to reflect the variety of volunteers’ motives. Similarly, Maki and Snyder (2017) developed a volunteer interest typology to identify eight types of volunteer behavior linked to different volunteer interests, such as helping animals or political volunteering.

Both classifications take a functional approach to illustrate the diversity of reasons for which volunteers give up their time to help with a good cause. While this research has advanced our understanding of what drives individuals to volunteer, researchers have also highlighted that we still lack crucial knowledge on the process through which certain motives are enacted in the actual decision to volunteer (Bussell and Forbes2002). Specifically, Bussell and For- bes’ (2002) literature review demonstrates that volunteering research has failed to capture the complexity of characteristics, motives, goals, and contexts that influence the decision to volunteer. In addition, research by Weenink and Bridgman (2017) highlights the limitations of the predominantly functional approach taken in most studies to date. Based on a social constructionist paradigm, they demonstrate that volunteer motivation can alternatively be understood as a socially negotiated process whereby individuals give meaning to their motives. They therefore call for more research complementing the functionalist approach to take into account the social and cultural context in which volunteer motivation unfolds. Overall, this stream of research suggests that more studies are needed to enhance our understanding of the volunteer population.

More recently, researchers have started to pay attention to organizational factors that NPOs can implement to improve volunteers’ experience and their willingness to continue volunteering. For instance, Maran and Soro (2010) demonstrate that an NPO’s organizational culture, exemplified through its rules and procedures, can be used to promote participation of a diverse group of volunteers.

Similarly, Lo Presti (2013) shows that the implementation of management tools such as regular information, task and social support, and appreciation can strengthen volunteers’

commitment, satisfaction, and loyalty. Both studies con- clude that a poor management of volunteers is likely to negatively affect volunteer motivation, leading them to either change the NPO or stop volunteering altogether (Lo Presti2013; Maran and Soro2010). While this research has started to uncover organizational factors that can promote positive volunteer outcomes, it also underlines the need for additional research in this area.

One factor that research has highlighted as a way to efficiently manage volunteers are human resource (HR) management practices, which—if applied to a volunteering context—can positively influence volunteer motivation (Alfes et al. 2017; Studer and von Schnurbein 2013).

Specifically, studies have highlighted the extent to which individual HR practices, such as recruitment or training, positively influence volunteer outcomes (Alfes et al.2015;

Boezeman and Ellemers 2008; Saksida et al. 2017).

However, little is known about the mechanisms through which combinations of HR practices influence volunteer outcomes, which is a critical omission, as the strategic HR literature suggests that so-called high-performance HR practices, i.e., bundles of separate but interconnected HR practices, are most effective in influencing individuals’

reactions to their role (Appelbaum et al. 2000; Jiang et al.

2012; Lepak et al. 2006; Subramony 2009). Moreover, NPOs often implement multiple HR practices simultaneously to increase their volunteers’ willingness and ability to carry out their role.

The present paper aims to address this gap by examining the extent to which volunteers’ perceptions of their NPO’s high-performance HR practices are related to their engagement with their role. Volunteer engagement is a relatively new concept in volunteering research and is conceptualized as a positive motivational construct:

Engaged volunteers channel their physical, cognitive, and affective energies into their role and are willing to bring their true selves to the performance of their activities (Alfes et al. 2016; Kahn1990). We focus on volunteer engagement as our outcome variable, as it has been demonstrated to have positive implications for volunteers, the beneficiaries of the NPO, and society at large (Alfes et al.2016;

Rich et al. 2010; Shantz et al. 2014; Vecina et al. 2013, 2012). Specifically, it has been suggested that volunteer engagement leads to higher levels of volunteer satisfaction and willingness to stay in the NPO (Alfes et al. 2016;

Vecina et al. 2012). In addition, we explore two mechanisms through which perceptions of high-performance HR practices lead volunteers to show higher levels of engagement. Specifically, we take into account strategic HR research, which suggests that HR practices influence individual attitudes via a functional and a non-instrumental role (Kinnie et al.2005). The functional role of high-performance HR practices influences individual outcomes through the development of knowledge, skills, and abilities, and it is exemplified in our study via psychological empowerment. The non-instrumental role of high-performance HR practices operates through the deployment of organizational-related feelings and emotions, as suggested by the concept of organizational identification. Hence, we test the proposition that volunteers show higher levels of engagement because high-performance HR practices empower them to carry out their activities successfully (i.e., a functional pathway) and because they feel a stronger identification with their organization (i.e., a non-instrumental pathway). A diagram of our theoretical model is depicted in Fig.1.

(3)

With this paper, we make three distinct contributions to the volunteering literature. First, by focusing on high-performance HR practices, we offer one of the first studies to explore bundles of HR practices in the volunteering context. The high-performance HR practices included in our study were chosen after careful consideration of the volunteering context and in line with previous research on HR in the volunteer sector (Akingbola2006; Alfes et al. 2017;

Studer and von Schnurbein 2013). They encompass attracting and selecting suitable volunteers, offering training and development opportunities, recognizing volunteers for their work, giving feedback on volunteer performance, involving volunteers in decision making, and communicating openly and transparently. We account for the uniqueness of the volunteering context by asking volunteers to assess the extent to which high-performance HR practices are available to them through their NPO, because examining their perceptions of high-performance HR practices allows us to better reflect the reality of their volunteering experience.

Second, we contribute to an understanding of the relationship between high-performance HR practices and volunteer outcomes by shedding light on two mechanisms which explainhow high-performance HR practices relate to engagement. Psychological empowerment can be described as a mechanism whereby volunteers develop competence and gain confidence in their role and tasks (Cohen 2009; Spreitzer 1995), whereas organizational identification relates to the internalization of organizational membership in that volunteers develop a particular emotional attachment to their organization (Ashforth and Mael

1989; Steimel 2013). By including both variables in one theoretical model, we are able to compare the functional and non-instrumental roles of HR practices (Kinnie et al.

2005) and investigate whether these practices predomi- nately exert an influence on volunteers because they improve their ability to carry out their role and tasks or because they foster positive emotions.

Third, by focusing on the effects of organizational-level practices on engagement, we offer insights into the extent to which NPOs can leverage high-performance HR practices to improve the satisfaction and motivation of their volunteers. Even though studies have demonstrated the positive effects of engagement for volunteers and NPOs (Alfes et al. 2016; Shantz et al.2014; Vecina et al. 2013, 2012), we still lack research that explores factors leading the former to engage with their role (Barnes and Sharpe 2009).

High-Performance HR Practices and Volunteer Engagement

A range of studies have demonstrated that context-specific HR practices can foster positive volunteer outcomes (for an overview, see Alfes et al. (2017)). A basic tenet of this research is that HR practices, if developed and implemented to fit volunteer characteristics, enhance their ability, motivation, and opportunities to participate in the functioning of their NPO. We build upon this research by analyzing how combinations of HR practices, which are implemented jointly, can influence volunteer engagement.

H1: + Organizational

identification H2: +

H3: + H3: +

H2: +

High-performance HR practices

Psychological empowerment

Engagement

Fig. 1 Conceptual model

(4)

The term high-performance HR practices was originally coined by Appelbaum et al. (2000) to describe HR practices that are internally consistent and interconnected bundles and thus interact with each other to influence individual attitudes and behaviors. Compared with individual HR practices, HR bundles are expected to have a more positive impact on volunteer outcomes (Guest et al.

2004; Subramony 2009) because synergies arise within these bundles, thereby amplifying the effect each HR practice exerts individually on individual outcomes.

Social exchange theory (SET) (Blau 1964) provides a theoretical foundation upon which to understand the relationship between high-performance HR practices and volunteer engagement. SET emphasizes norms of reciprocity, whereby parties within social relationships feel obliged to reciprocate favors they receive from the other party.

Translated to the volunteering context, this suggests that by implementing high-performance HR practices, NPOs send a signal to their volunteers that they care about them and value their contributions. In turn, volunteers who feel appreciated and supported by their organization respond to this signal by demonstrating attitudes that are beneficial to their NPO, such as a higher level of engagement. We therefore propose a positive relationship between combinations of HR practices and volunteer engagement. Hence,

Hypothesis One (H1) Perceived high-performance HR practices are positively related to volunteer engagement.

The Role of Organizational Identification

Strategic HR research suggests that high-performance HR practices relate to volunteer outcomes indirectly, rather than directly, in that they influence volunteer outcomes via two distinct pathways. First, high-performance HR practices play a functional role (Kinnie et al. 2005) by improving volunteers’ knowledge, skills, and abilities, which is exemplified in our study by the concept of empowerment. Second, high-performance HR practices play a non-instrumental role (Kinnie et al.2005) by cre- ating a positive sense of emotional attachment between the volunteers and their NPO, as indicated by the concept of organizational identification. In the following, we develop arguments to suggest that high-performance HR practices operate through both mechanisms to foster volunteer engagement.

Organizational identification describes the extent to which volunteers internalize organizational membership in their self-conception and thus develop an emotional attachment to the organization (Ashforth and Mael 1989;

Steimel2013). This sense of belongingness to the NPO is reflected in the way they expresses themselves when they

speak about their NPO, for example, by using the word

‘we’ instead of ‘they’ (Ashforth and Mael 1989). As a result, volunteers no longer perceive the organization as a separate entity but rather as an integral part of their being.

We suggest that high-performance HR practices are a means of fostering volunteers’ identification with their NPO, because through their implementation, NPOs send positive signals to their volunteers, indicating that they care about them. In terms of the non-instrumental role played by HR practices, volunteers develop an attachment to the organization (Takeuchi et al.2009; Wright et al.2003) and start to identify with the NPO (Ashforth et al.2008) as a result of the HR practices offered to them. Hence, we expect a positive relationship between high-performance HR practices and organizational identification in the context of volunteering.

Furthermore, social identity theory (SIT) suggests that the internalization of organizational membership, which happens in the process of organizational identification (Ashforth and Mael1989), creates a merging between the self and the group interest (Hogg and Abrams1988; Tajfel and Turner 1985). Hence, volunteers internalize group interest and will then visualize the failures and successes of the NPO as their own (Dutton et al.1994). They will make a conscious effort to increase their engagement level to avoid failures and foster successes on behalf of their NPO (Tyler and Blader2003; van Knippenberg2000). Thus, we expect volunteers who identify with their NPO to respond with higher levels of engagement.

In summary, we argue that volunteers who perceive high-performance HR practices in their NPO respond by increasing their identification with the organization, as they feel that the NPO cares about them and their wellbeing (Ashforth and Mael1989; Blau1964; Takeuchi et al.2009;

Wright et al.2003). The sense of belongingness to the NPO associated with higher levels of identification (Ashforth and Mael1989) induces them to adopt attitudes that contribute to NPO goals (Ashforth et al. 2008; Blau 1964;

Dutton et al. 1994; Hogg and Abrams 1988; Tajfel and Turner 1985). Specifically, the internalization of their NPO’s interests leads volunteers to demonstrate their devotion and dedication to their activities by increasing their engagement (Tyler and Blader 2003; van Knippen- berg2000).

Hence, we suggest that high-performance HR practices lead to higher levels of organizational identification among volunteers, which in turn increases their engagement. We therefore hypothesize that

Hypothesis Two (H2) Volunteer organizational identification accounts for a significant portion of variance in the relationship between perceived high-performance HR practices and volunteer engagement.

(5)

The Role of Psychological Empowerment

Spreitzer (1995) defined psychological empowerment as a process in which individuals gain a greater sense of control over work, in that they possess the necessary skills and abilities to carry out their tasks. We suggest that high-performance HR practices also play a functional role by influencing volunteers’ level of empowerment, because they strengthen their competence in carrying out their volunteer work and in making decisions about how their tasks should be accomplished. According to Spreitzer (1995), psychological empowerment can be assessed as a function of four cognitions: Meaning, competence, self-determination, and impact.Meaningis the sense and importance that volunteers see in their volunteer work.Competencerefers to their belief in having the necessary skills and ability to perform their activity, andself-determinationdescribes the extent to which they can make free choices about the way they carry out their volunteer work. Finally,impactrelates to the extent to which they can influence the outcomes of their volunteer activity and exercise control over their environment.

High-performance HR practices are likely to influence all four cognitions that form the overall concept of psychological empowerment. Specifically, high-performance HR practices, which focus on skill-specific recruitment, training, and development, lead to higher levels of self- efficacy and increase volunteers’ sense of feeling competent and empowered (Bandura 1997; Spreitzer 1995).

Information sharing about the purpose and relevance of volunteer work help volunteers feel competent and see meaning in their role, thereby enhancing a sense of psychological empowerment. Providing them with the opportunity to participate in decision making and influence the allocation of tasks increases their levels of self-determination and enables them to see the impact of their work on beneficiaries. Overall, this suggests that high-performance HR practices generate greater feelings of psychological empowerment among volunteers.

Furthermore, we theorize that psychological empowerment is associated with increased volunteer engagement. In particular, volunteers who feel able to decide how their tasks should be carried out will express their true self in the performance of their volunteer work (Haivas et al. 2013;

Kahn 1990; Ryan et al. 2008). Moreover, by feeling competent in what they do, volunteers will tend to focus with greater persistence and insistence on their task (Maslach et al.2001; Ryan and Deci2001; Spreitzer1995).

Finally, when volunteers see meaning in their activity, they will likely increase their efforts and dedicate energy to the activity (Kahn1990). This notion is supported by Cohen (2009), who suggested that psychological empowerment is positively related to volunteer engagement.

In summary, we argue that volunteers who benefit from high-performance HR practices experience a higher sense of empowerment, as they feel more competent and confident about their ability to carry out their tasks (Bandura 1997; Spreitzer1995). Increased empowerment, in turn, is likely to positively influence engagement, as higher levels of competence induce a motivational process (Gagne´ et al.

1997; Hackman and Oldham1975) whereby volunteers are more willing and better able to dedicate themselves to their voluntary work through higher engagement (Alfes et al.

2016).

To sum up, based on theoretical and empirical arguments, we hypothesize that psychological empowerment explains the relationship between high-performance HR practices and volunteer engagement.

Hypothesis Three (H3) Volunteer psychological empowerment accounts for a significant portion of variance in the relationship between perceived high-performance HR practices and volunteer engagement.

Method

Sample and Procedure

Five NPOs based in the Netherlands participated in our survey. One organization provided guidance to ex-convicts, detainees, and their relatives; two organizations provided assistance to elderly persons; one provided help to people with disabilities; and one focused on protecting animals and the environment. The volunteers in these organizations were contacted via an email which explained the purpose of the survey and its voluntary, anonymous, and confi- dential nature. They were asked to answer the survey within 4 weeks; after 2 weeks, a reminder was sent out.

Two hundred and fifty-six volunteers participated in our survey. Twenty-three were excluded from our survey in line with established procedures in volunteering research (e.g., Alfes et al.2015), as they did not report any volunteer activity in the last 12 months. The final sample comprised 233 volunteers with an average age of 60 years (SD = 10.81), and 61% of the respondents were female.

Approximately 40% of the respondents were retired; 16%

were unemployed because of illness or disability; 11% had a part-time job; 10% were housewives/housemen; 9% were unemployed and jobseekers; 7% had a full-time job; 5%

represented the ‘other’ category; and 2% were students.

Measures

Due to the Dutch nationality of the participants, the questionnaire was sent out in Dutch language. Following the

(6)

procedure outlined by Brislin (1980), the scales used in the questionnaire were translated first from English to Dutch and then back-translated. Any discrepancies in translation were discussed by the research team and solved. Items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from one (‘strongly disagree’) to seven (‘strongly agree’).

Perceived High-Performance HR Practices

Perceived high-performance HR practices were measured with 18 items from validated scales (Cuskelly et al.2006;

Gould-Williams and Davies2005; Kehoe and Wright2013;

Lepak and Snell 2002). These items were chosen after careful consideration of the volunteering context, making sure that they were relevant for the volunteers included in our survey. The 18 items can be categorized according to their basic functions as ability-enhancing, motivation-enhancing, and opportunity-enhancing practices (Appelbaum et al.2000). As some items were originally developed for the for-profit sector, the wording of the items was slightly adapted by, for example, replacing ‘job’ with ‘volunteer work’ or ‘employees’ with ‘volunteers.’ An example item was: ‘The organization recognizes the outstanding work or task performance of individual volunteers.’ The Cron- bach’s alpha was .90.

Volunteer Engagement

We measured volunteer engagement with a 10-item scale adapted from Rich et al. (2010) in line with previous research on volunteer engagement (Shantz et al.2014). The measure comprised three facets of engagement, namely physical engagement (e.g., ‘I exert a lot of energy when I volunteer’), emotional engagement (e.g., ‘I feel energetic in my role as a volunteer’), and cognitive engagement (e.g.,

‘When I volunteer, my mind is focused on my volunteering activities’). The Cronbach’s alpha was .93.

Psychological Empowerment

Volunteer psychological empowerment was measured with the 12-item scale provided by Spreitzer (1995). A sample item was: ‘I am confident in my ability to perform my volunteer activities.’ The Cronbach’s alpha was .85.

Organizational Identification

The six-item scale provided by Mael and Ashforth (1992) was used to measure the organizational identification of the volunteers. A sample item was: ‘When I speak about the organization, I usually say ‘‘we’’ rather than ‘‘they’’.’ The Cronbach’s alpha was .86.

Control Variables

We controlled for the influence of gender and age while testing the model, as previous research suggests that they are related to the dependent and independent variables in our model (Wilson 2000, 2012). Furthermore, to account for potential differences between the five participating NPOs, we also included organization as a control variable and used the organization with the highest number of respondents as the comparison group.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

The means and standard deviations for each scale and inter- scale correlations for all the variables studied in the model are presented in Table1.

Preliminary Data Analysis

As the data were collected from a single source, we con- ducted a series of confirmatory factor analyses, using AMOS 22.0 (Arbuckle 2006), to assess the potential influence of common methods bias and to establish the discriminant validity of the scales (Podsakoff et al.2003).

We initially tested a full measurement model, in which the high-performance HR practices items were grouped according to their functions, i.e., into ability-, motivation-, and opportunity-enhancing practices, and then loaded onto a general HR factor. The three engagement facets were loaded onto a general engagement factor. The four dimensions of psychological empowerment were loaded onto a general psychological empowerment factor and organizational identification items loaded onto a general organizational identification factor. All factors were allowed to correlate. We used five fit indices to establish the goodness of fit of our model. Forv²/df, values of less than 2.5 indicate a good model fit (Arbuckle2006). For the comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), values greater than .95 represent a good model fit, and values greater than .90 represent an acceptable fit (Bentler 1990). For the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), values less than .80 indicate a good model fit (Browne and Cudeck 1993; Hu and Bentler 1998).

The four-factor model demonstrated a good model fit (v²= 203;df= 98; TLI = .90; CFI = .92; RMSEA = .072;

SRMR = .068). Next, we carried out sequential v²difference tests. Specifically, the full measurement model was compared to six alternative nested models, as shown in

(7)

Table2, with the results showing that the six alternative models fit the data significantly worse compared to the full measurement model. This suggests that the variables in our study are best treated as distinct constructs in accordance with their theoretical conceptualization.

Test of the Hypotheses

The SPSS macro function PROCESS, taken from Hayes (2013), was used to test our hypothesized model. Based on ordinary least squares regression, PROCESS gives an estimate of the indirect and direct effects of a statistical mediation model. We used bootstrapping and bias-cor- rected 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to accurately assess

the indirect and direct effects. According to Hayes (2013), this is a more elaborate method for testing a mediation model in comparison with alternative approaches (e.g., Baron and Kenny 1986). Furthermore, several mediators can be tested simultaneously, which enables us to assess the differences in strength between organizational identification and psychological empowerment.

Table3presents the results of the analysis of one of the possible mediators for our baseline relationship, namely organizational identification. There was a positive and significant total effect of high-performance HR practices on engagement (ß = .11, p\.05), thus supporting hypothesis one. The results showed further that perceived high-performance HR practices were positively and Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and scale variables’ correlations and reliabilities

Variables M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. Gender

2. Organization 1 .11 –

3. Organization 2 -.12 -.19** –

4. Organization 3 -.06 -.19** -.11 –

5. Organization 4 -.05 -.04 -.02 -.02 –

6. Age 60.27 (10.81) - .23** -.11 .10 -.08 .01 –

7. Engagement 6.12 (.84) -.09 -.09 -.10 .06 -.03 -.12 (.93)

8. High-performance HR practices 4.98 (1.18) -.04 .04 .09 .11 .03 .02 .11 (.90) 9. Organizational identification 4.62 (1.22) -.00 .01 .14* -.03 .02 .16* .20** .46** (.86) 10. Psychological empowerment 5.49 (.79) .05 -.16* .08 .08 -.08 -.04 .32** .31** .30** (.85) N= 233; Cronbach’s alpha coefficients are on the diagonal and in brackets

Mmean;SDstandard deviation

*p\.05; **p\.01

Table 2 Fit statistics from

measurement model comparison Models v²(df) TLI CFI RMSEA SRMR v²diff dfdiff

Full measurement model 203 (98) .900 .919 .072 .068

Model A 277 (101) .837 .863 .092 .107 74 3***

Model B 277 (101) .837 .863 .092 .093 74 3***

Model C 286 (101) .829 .856 .094 .092 83 3***

Model D 307 (101) .809 .839 .099 .083 104 3***

Model E 508 (101) .624 .683 .139 .121 305 3***

Model F 651 (104) .509 .574 .159 .131 448 6***

N= 233

v²Chi-square;dfdegrees of freedom;TLITucker–Lewis index;CFIcomparative fit index;RMSEAroot mean square error of approximation;SRMRstandardized root mean square residual;v²diffdifference in Chi-square;df diffdifference in degrees of freedom. All models are compared to the full measurement model

***p\.001

Model A: psychological empowerment and engagement into one single factor; Model B: psychological empowerment and organizational identification into one single factor; Model C: high-performance HR practices and psychological empowerment into one single factor; Model D: high-performance HR practices and organizational identification into one single factor; Model E: organizational identification and engagement into one single factor; Model F: all factors into one single factor

(8)

significantly (ß = .57, p\.001) related to organizational identification, which in turn was positively and significantly (ß = .11,p\.05) related to volunteer engagement.

The PROCESS macro provided an estimate of the size of the indirect effect of perceived high-performance HR practices on volunteer engagement, operating through organizational identification, which was positive and significant (.06) with a 95% CI of (.0154, .1314), thus supporting hypothesis two.

Table4 presents the results of the second possible mediator that we have tested for our baseline relationship, namely, psychological empowerment. Perceived high-performance HR practices were positively and significantly (ß = .24,p\.001) related to psychological empowerment, which in turn was positively and significantly (ß = .29,

p\.001) related to engagement. The estimation of the indirect effect of perceived high-performance HR practices on engagement when psychological empowerment was included in the model was positive and significant (.07), with a bootstrapped 95% CI of (.0263, .1223), lending support to hypothesis three.

Finally, we tested the difference in strength between organizational identification and psychological empowerment. The test for differences was not significant (95% CI [-.0723, .0805]), suggesting that the sizes of the effects via organizational identification and psychological empowerment were not meaningfully different from each other.

Table 3 Results of hypothesis testing: organizational identification

Variables Outcomes

Coef. SE

Direct and total effects

HPHRP on organizational identification .57*** .07

Organizational identification on engagement .11* .06

Total effect of HPHRP on engagement .11* .05

Direct effect of HPHRP on engagement -.03 .06

Bootstrapping results for indirect effect

Indirect effect of HPHRP on engagement through organizational identification .06*** .03

CI (95%) [.0154, .1314]

Adjusted R² .27

N= 233

HPHRPhigh-performance HR practices.CIconfidence interval Control variables in all models: age, gender, and organization

*p\.05, **p\.01, ***p\.001

Table 4 Results of hypothesis testing: psychological empowerment

Variables Outcomes

Coef. SE

Direct and total effects

HPHRP on psychological empowerment .24*** .05

Psychological empowerment on engagement .29*** .08

Total effect of HPHRP on engagement .11* .05

Direct effect of HPHRP on engagement -.03 .06

Bootstrapping results for indirect effect

Indirect effect of HPHRP on engagement through psychological empowerment .07*** .02

CI (95%) [.0263, .1223]

Adjusted R² .27

N= 233

HPHRPhigh-performance HR practices.CIconfidence interval Control variables in all models: age, gender, and organization

*p\.05, **p\.01, ***p\.001

(9)

Discussion

The overriding purpose of this study was to identify HR practices that NPOs can implement to foster the professional management of their volunteers. To do so, we conceptualized and tested a model, which demonstrated a significant and positive relationship between high-performance HR practices and volunteers’ engagement. Specifi- cally, the results of our empirical analysis showed that HR practices are important in a volunteering context, as they have a non-instrumental and a functional role in influencing the extent to which volunteers are engaged in their activities. In the following, we discuss how these findings contribute to current scholarly debates in volunteering and HR fields.

First, volunteering research has increasingly focused on understanding the relevance of HR practices in the volunteering context (Bartram et al. 2017) as part of a professional management of volunteers. Our first contribution is therefore to a growing number of studies which have demonstrated that HR practices can positively influence volunteers’ motivation (Alfes et al.2015; Alfes et al.2017;

Boezeman and Ellemers2008; Huynh et al.2012; Saksida et al. 2017). Specifically, we have shown that by implementing mutually reinforcing and interacting HR practices simultaneously, NPOs can foster the engagement of their volunteer workforce. This is especially important because it demonstrates that NPOs can have a stronger impact on the motivation of their volunteers—and potentially benefit from their services longer—when they make conscious use of the synergies provided within high-performance HR bundles.

Second, our study also contributes to the volunteering literature by identifying and simultaneously testing two mechanisms through which volunteers’ perceptions of HR practices influence engagement. We suggested—and found—that HR practices play a functional and a non-instrumental role, in that they foster volunteers’ psychological empowerment as well as their identification with their NPO. These findings extend previous studies aimed at understanding how high-performance HR practices relate to positive volunteer outcomes (Cuskelly et al. 2006;

Gardner et al.2001; Messersmith et al.2011). Specifically, our findings show that engagement levels are likely to rise when volunteers are empowered and identify with their NPO. Our study therefore opens up new avenues for future research by shedding light on how certain management tools, such as HR practices, influence volunteers. We introduced two different explanations in the present study, which turned out to be equally relevant. We therefore encourage scholars to further improve our understanding of how the professional management of volunteers can lead to

higher levels of volunteer satisfaction, motivation and intention to continue volunteering. For example, it would also be fruitful to identify other volunteer outcomes that are affected by the implementation of high-performance HR practices. Given that HR practices operate via organizational identification and empowerment, which are two concepts linked to a host of other attitudinal and behavioral reactions (Ashforth et al.2008; Cohen 2009; Jones2010;

Kulik 2007), it is likely that HR practices also positively influence volunteers’ satisfaction, intention to stay in an organization, their performance, and their wellbeing, among others.

A third contribution is that our study complements existing HR research by examining the relationship between high-performance HR practices and individual- level outcomes in the not-for-profit sector. While the previous HR research has focused on the for-profit sector by analyzing the outcomes of HR practices for employees (Gardner et al.2001; Jiang et al.2012; Kehoe and Wright 2013), our study has highlighted the relevance of high- performance HR practices in a context that so far has been overlooked by most HR scholars. Specifically, we have demonstrated the usefulness of implementing performance- enhancing HR practices for the professional management of volunteers. In doing so, we provide further evidence that management practices implemented to fit the context of volunteering can be leveraged to enhance volunteer motivation and participation, such as their level of engagement (Lo Presti 2013; Maran and Soro 2010; Studer and von Schnurbein 2013).

Beyond our specific contributions to scholarly debates in HR and volunteering, our study has implications for wider theory building. We drew herein on social exchange and identity theories (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Blau 1964), established in the field of psychology and widely used in management research, to understand how volunteers respond to organizational-level practices. These theories have so far neglected the specific characteristics of the volunteering context. Resonating with prior research stat- ing that ‘the study of volunteering is poorly theorized’

(Wilson2005, p. 25), the present study aimed at extending these theories and understanding their applicability in the nonprofit sector, which is an essential undertaking because volunteers differ from paid staff (Studer 2016; Wilson 2012), and theories and concepts developed in the for-profit sector cannot be applied automatically in the not-for-profit sector (Cnaan and Cascio1999; Cuskelly et al.2006). We therefore contribute to an understanding of whether established theoretical frameworks are universal and applicable across different sectors, industries, and contexts.

In addition to the theoretical contributions presented above, our study has practical implications for the management of volunteers, in that volunteer coordinators need

(10)

to develop and implement a coherent set of HR practices in order to foster volunteers’ level of engagement. For example, in our sample, some volunteers helped people with disabilities. For this type of volunteer activity, it may be useful to recruit and select individuals who possess knowledge and experience of supporting individuals with disabilities. This could be complemented by the provision of training on the different types of disability and assistance specific to these disabilities. Furthermore, the organization should ensure that volunteers receive feedback on the help they provide to identify not only individual strengths but also areas for improvement. Finally, involving volunteers in important decisions about their activities, as well as communicating with them openly about their impact on the beneficiaries, will increase their levels of engagement. Thus, by developing a mutually reinforcing set of HR practices, volunteer coordinators can leverage the potential of their volunteers and ensure their long-term satisfaction and motivation.

Our findings also underline the importance of making HR practices visible to volunteers. Indeed, we showed that it is their perceptions of high-performance HR practices that are relevant for their level of engagement. This suggests that HR practices must be known by volunteers.

Information about the organization (e.g., objectives, vision, mission, goals) and about the voluntary activity could be shared via online training, which would allow them to absorb information at their own pace and in a flexible way.

In addition, online training enables the organization to institutionalize the sharing of information, as all volunteers receive the same information at the beginning of their activities, which facilitates their socialization (Jones1986).

Another way of increasing awareness of the HR practices offered by an NPO is to disseminate information regularly, which could be done via regular emails informing volunteers about training opportunities, upcoming meetings, and future organizational developments.

Finally, the two mechanisms identified in our study suggest that supporting volunteer organizational identification and psychological empowerment should help foster engagement. Organizational identification can be supported via collective meetings, because they help volunteers feel part of the organization. In addition, using WhatsApp groups for volunteers, aligned with memorable messages in these communications (Steimel 2013), should increase their sense of belongingness to the NPO. To support volunteer empowerment, skills-based recruitment and training are essential as they directly influence volunteer competence; moreover, performance appraisals and feedback are also important elements in this regard. For example, coordinators could discuss volunteer performance at least once a year based on measurable goals and objectives set jointly. In addition, the recognition of volunteers’ efforts

could be done not only via an informal thank you but also publicly via newsletters shared with the entire staff of the organization.

Study Limitations and Directions for Future Research

We have identified four particular limitations in our study, each of which offers fruitful avenues for future research.

The first limitation relates to the cross-sectional nature of our data, which makes it difficult to establish the causality of the relationships under study. Although we have theorized about the role played by organizational identification and empowerment for our baseline relationship and con- ducted a series of confirmatory factor analyses to test the robustness of our model, we cannot exclude that another model may explain the relationships between the variables under study. For instance, with the current empirical design, we cannot disregard the possibility that engagement leads to organizational identification and psychological empowerment, which in turn may influence volunteers’

perception of HR practices. It is therefore necessary to extend our study to a longitudinal research design with multiple data collection periods over time to test the causality of our relationships. Doing so addresses the requirement of conceptual time ordering which is inherent in any mediation hypothesis (Tate 2015) and allows researchers to verify the conceptualized causal ordering of the hypothesized model. Future researchers should also test empirically the extent to which alternative causal models might fit the data (Fiedler et al. 2018). For instance, structural equation modeling would allow scholars to establish whether engagement influences the relationship between high-performance HR practices and organizational identification as well as the relationship between high- performance HR practices and empowerment.

Second, the data are based on volunteers’ self-assess- ments, implying that we cannot rule out the possibility that common method bias unduly influences our results. How- ever, we followed the procedures suggested by Podsakoff et al. (2003) by using established scales and conducting a series of confirmatory factor analyses using AMOS 22.0 (Arbuckle2006), the result of which revealed that common method bias did not cause any major concerns in our study.

Nevertheless, we encourage future researchers to complement volunteers’ self-reporting with data collected from multiple sources, such as HR practitioners, volunteer coordinators, or beneficiaries, in order to investigate our findings further.

Third, our research draws on data from one cultural area, the Netherlands. Volunteering research and theory have shown that the nature and perception of volunteering

(11)

depend to a large extent on context and culture (Handy et al. 2000, 2010; Wilson 2012). Hence, volunteers’

experiences and perceptions of their NPOs’ practices are likely to differ between countries (Bartram et al.2017; Gil- Lacruz et al.2017). Therefore, a cross-cultural comparison of the effects of HR practices on volunteer outcomes would contribute to the volunteering literature and practice by increasing knowledge further on the management of volunteers across cultures.

Fourth, conditional on our conceptual model (see Fig.1), our statistical analyses showed that organizational identification and psychological empowerment can account for a significant portion of variance shared between high- performance HR practices and volunteer engagement.

However, we cannot exclude that alternative mechanisms could also explain our baseline relationship (Fiedler et al.

2018). Indeed, the small size of the indirect effects of organizational identification and psychological empowerment indicates that other mediators could explain our baseline relationship. For example, it would be helpful to understand how trust in the volunteer coordinator influences the relationship between high-performance HR practices and volunteer engagement. Trust in the NPO’s management could facilitate social exchanges between the NPO and its volunteers (Blau1964) and thus would result in favorable outcomes. It would also be interesting to examine the extent to which commitment to beneficiaries is shaped by volunteer perception of the HR system and influences volunteer engagement. High-performance HR practices can increase volunteers’ commitment to their beneficiaries because volunteers who feel valued by their NPO experience a sense of pride and identification and are therefore likely to be committed not only to the NPO but also to its main stakeholder, the beneficiaries (Bartram et al. 2014; McAllum 2018). As a result, this increased commitment is likely to lead to a higher level of engagement (Alfes et al.2015). Finally, we encourage researchers to investigate the amount of variance explained by person- job fit, i.e., the compatibility between volunteers’ skills and abilities and their volunteering role, in the relationship between high-performance HR practices and engagement (Kristof-Brown et al.2005). Indeed, high-performance HR practices are likely to increase the fit perceived by volunteers between their individual capabilities and the tasks that they are asked to carry out. As a result, they are more likely to become fully invested in their role, hence demonstrating higher levels of engagement. To sum up, the results of our study encourage a more in-depth exploration of additional mediating effects on the relationship between high-performance HR bundles and engagement.

Our study also opens up a new and fruitful avenue of research for scholars interested in enhancing NPO effec- tiveness and efficiency. Although volunteering research

(e.g. Alfes et al. 2016; Shantz et al. 2014; Vecina et al.

2012,2013) has presented a number of positive outcomes of volunteer engagement, its direct relationship with an NPO’s performance remains underexplored. Specifically, future scholars could assess whether an engaged volunteer workforce has an impact on the NPO’s capacity development, outcomes in terms of behavioral and environmental changes, client satisfaction, and public value accomplish- ment (Lee and Nowell 2015).

We also encourage researchers to use different philo- sophical approaches to the study of the professionalization of volunteer management. The study by Weenink and Bridgman (2017) has been very useful in highlighting that taking a purely positivist approach limits our understanding of the volunteering processes. Alternative paradigms, such as social constructionism, can therefore complement and increase our understanding of how volunteers need to be managed and coordinated on a daily basis. For example, it would be particularly interesting to study how the exchanges between volunteers and their family members, friends, colleagues, other volunteers, and beneficiaries shape their perceptions and attributions of the management practices put in place. Specifically, participant observation and in-depth interviews can reveal how those interactions can influence volunteers’ perceptions and their attribution of the implemented management practices, especially in highly politicized fields of activity (e.g., the refugee context), and in turn lead to different levels of satisfaction and participation (Florian et al. 2019; Larruina and Ghorashi 2016). In addition, interactions between the researcher and the volunteer, which result from the participant observation and interviews, are also likely to shape volunteers’ perception (Weenink and Bridgman 2017). Therefore, we encourage future research to acknowledge and reflect on this potential influence and take it into account when col- lecting data and interpreting results.

Finally, we suggest that future research should investigate how NPOs can design volunteer management tools that are effective in keeping volunteers satisfied and loyal to the organization. For example, future researchers could explore the extent to which employing professional versus non-professional volunteer coordinators makes a difference in facilitating the relationship that volunteers develop with their NPO. It is plausible that volunteers are more likely to feel valued and identify with the NPO when the coordinator is seen as a professional representative of the NPO.

Conclusion

Engagement is an important motivational construct for the volunteering context. In the present study, we developed and tested a model which links high-performance HR

(12)

practices with volunteer engagement. In line with central propositions from the strategic HR literature, our results demonstrate that high-performance HR practices are related to volunteer engagement, because the relationship operates through functional and non-instrumental pathways. Hence, volunteer coordinators should consider simultaneously implementing aligned and interconnected HR practices to achieve desirable volunteer outcomes, such as increased motivation and satisfaction.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References

Akingbola, K. (2006). Strategy and HRM in nonprofit organizations:

Evidence from Canada. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17(10), 1707–1725.

Alfes, K., Antunes, B., & Shantz, A. (2017). The management of volunteers—What can human resources do? A review and research agenda.The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(1), 62–97.

Alfes, K., Shantz, A., & Bailey, C. (2016). Enhancing volunteer engagement to achieve desirable outcomes: What can non-profit employers do?VOLUNTAS: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 27(2), 595–617.

Alfes, K., Shantz, A., & Saksida, T. (2015). Committed to whom?

Unraveling how relational job design influences volunteers’

turnover intentions and time spent volunteering. VOLUNTAS:

International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 26(6), 2479–2499.

Appelbaum, E., Bailey, T., Berg, P., & Kalleberg, A. L. (2000).

Manufacturing advantage: Why high-performance work systems pay off. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Arbuckle, J. L. (2006).AMOS (Version 7.0) [computer software].

Chicago, IL: SPSS.

Ashforth, B. E., Harrison, S. H., & Corley, K. G. (2008). Identifi- cation in organizations: An examination of four fundamental questions.Journal of Management, 34(3), 325–374.

Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization.Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 20–39.

Bandura, A. (1997).Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W.H. Freeman & Company.

Barnes, M. L., & Sharpe, E. K. (2009). Looking beyond traditional volunteer management: A case study of an alternative approach to volunteer engagement in parks and recreation.VOLUNTAS:

International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 20(2), 169–187.

Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.

Bartram, T., Cavanagh, J., & Hoye, R. (2017). The growing importance of human resource management in the NGO, volunteer and not-for-profit sectors. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(14), 1901–1911.

Bartram, T., Karimi, L., Leggat, S. G., & Stanton, P. (2014). Social identification: Linking high performance work systems, psychological empowerment and patient care. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(17), 2401–2419.

Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models.

Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238–246.

Blau, P. M. (1964).Exchange and power in social life. New York, NY: Wiley.

Boezeman, E. J., & Ellemers, N. (2008). Volunteer recruitment: The role of organizational support and anticipated respect in non- volunteers’ attraction to charitable volunteer organizations.

Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(5), 1013–1026.

Brislin, R. W. (1980). Translation and content analysis of oral and written material. In H. C. Triandis & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: Methodology(Vol. 2, pp. 389–444). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.),Testing structural equation models(pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016).Volunteering in the United States–

2015 [Press release].

Bussell, H., & Forbes, D. (2002). Understanding the volunteer market: The what, where, who and why of volunteering.

International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Mar- keting, 7(3), 244–257.

Butt, M. U., Hou, Y., Soomro, K. A., & Maran, D. A. (2017). The ABCE model of volunteer motivation.Journal of Social Service Research, 43(5), 593–608.

Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., et al. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1516–1530.

Cnaan, R. A., & Cascio, T. A. (1999). Performance and commitment:

Issues in management of volunteers in human service organizations.Journal of Social Service Research, 24(3/4), 1–37.

Cohen, A. (2009). Welfare clients’ volunteering as a means of empowerment.Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 38(3), 522–534.

Cuskelly, G., Taylor, T., Hoye, R., & Darcy, S. (2006). Volunteer management practices and volunteer retention: A human resource management approach. Sport Management Review, 9(2), 141–163.

Dutton, J. E., Dukerich, J. M., & Harquail, C. V. (1994). Organiza- tional images and member identification.Administrative Science Quarterly, 39(2), 239–263.

Fiedler, K., Harris, C., & Schott, M. (2018). Unwarranted inferences from statistical mediation tests—an analysis of articles published in 2015.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 75,95–102.

Florian, M., Costas, J., & Ka¨rreman, D. (2019). Struggling with meaningfulness when context shifts: Volunteer work in a German refugee shelter. Journal of Management Studies, 56(3), 589–616.

Gagne´, M., Sene´cal, C. B., & Koestner, R. (1997). Proximal job characteristics, feelings of empowerment, and intrinsic motivation: A multidimensional model.Journal of Applied Psychology, 27(14), 1222–1240.

Gardner, T. M., Moynihan, L. M., Park, H. J., & Wright, P. M. (2001).

Beginning to unlock the black box in the HR firm performance relationship: The impact of HR practices on employee attitudes and employee outcomes. Working Paper for The Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.

Gil-Lacruz, A. I., Marcuello, C., & Saz-Gil, I. (2017). Individual and social factors in volunteering participation rates in Europe.

Cross-Cultural Research, 51(5), 464–490.

Gould-Williams, J., & Davies, F. (2005). Using social exchange theory to predict the effects of HRM practice on employee outcomes: An analysis of public sector workers.Public Man- agement Review, 7(1), 1–24.