Future prospective customers
5. BEAR Project: Better Education for Africa’s Rise (Logical Framework)
By
Matilda M. Nsemani & Cleophas Takaiza
Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training Authority
1.0 Introduction
This paper provides an overview of the social economic conditions in Zambia and how the Education and Training system presents opportunities to address some of the issues that Zambia is currently facing, especially in the Construction and Tourism industry. It further proposes some strategies for discussion in attempting to address the identified challenges.
2.0 Background
Zambia lies in the Southern part of Africa covering an area of 752,614 square kilometers, with a terrain which is mostly plateau savanna and a climate which is dry and temperate. The population, which is predominantly Christian, is currently estimated 12.4 million (2008 Labour Force Survey, CSO) with an annual growth rate of about 2.9 percent. The country is endowed with abundant natural resources, which include copper, cobalt, zinc, lead, coal, emeralds, gold, silver, uranium, water and fertile land. The main industries are mining, transport, construction, manufacturing, Tourism and agriculture.
Zambia is endowed with abundant arable land and water resources. Out of the country's landmass of approximately 752,000 square kilometers, 56 percent is arable land (42 million hectares). In addition about 35 percent of the fresh water resources in the SADC region are in Zambia, which if effectively utilized, could make agriculture a main stay of the economy.
3.0 Demographic Characteristics
Zambia has a predominantly young and steadily growing population which, on the surface at least, has not changed since independence. The total population of Zambia is estimated at 12, 363,879 of which 66 percent resides in rural areas, while 34 percent resided in urban areas (CSO, Labour Market Survey, 2008) of which 45% are aged bellow 15 years of age. Table 1 bellow shows the population distribution by age
and sex as at 2008.
Table 1: Population Distribution by Age and Sex, Zambia, 2008
Age Group Male Female Total Total
Population
00~04 17 16 16 2,038,060 05~09 15 15 15 1,830,723 10~14 14 14 14 1,713,491 15~19 13 12 12 1,517,384
20~24 9 10 9 1,145,948
25~29 8 8 8 989,300
30~34 6 6 6 786,726
35~39 5 5 5 628,040
40~44 4 4 4 454,342
45~49 3 3 3 341,890
50~54 2 2 2 249,404
55~59 2 1 1 182,321
60~64 1 1 1 157,128
65+ 3 3 3 329,120
Total 100 100 100 12,363,879 Source: CSO, Labour force survey, 2008
4.0 Economic Trends
In the last decade the Zambian economy has grown steadily from the slump years of the 1990s. Between 2002 and 2005 the growth was 4.8% per year, which more than doubled the performance of the previous four years. For the subsequent five-year period the annual rate of growth was mostly above 5%, including the period of the global recession of 2008/2009.
This performance is due mainly to the expansion of mining and construction. In particular, the transfer of ownership of the copper mining companies from government to private interests brought new investments supported by a favourable international climate for commodity prices. In addition, new private mines were opened in the North-Western Province, which now hosts one of the most productive copper mining operations in the world. The continuing expansion of mining was responsible, in part, for growth in the construction industry, which also experienced a significant increase in residential construction by property developers and private individuals. Other
sectors, too, have increased their contributions to the growth of the national economy, notably manufacturing and tourism, which recorded, for the 2002~2005 period, average growth rates of 5.2% and 7.4%, respectively. These sectors - mining, tourism and manufacturing - together with agriculture and services, are expected to underpin long-term economic growth in Zambia.
5.0 Employment Trends
The long-term vision of the country is encapsulated in the Vision 2030 statement which expresses Zambia's aspiration to become a "Prosperous Middle-Income Nation by 2030". By this goal Zambia seeks a reversal of its sharp decline from a middle- income to a low-income nation. By comparison, using current measures, Zambia's Gross National Income (GNI) per capita in the immediate aftermath of independence in 1964, was greater than that of Botswana, Gabon and Thailand, all of which are now middle-income nations.
The Vision 2030 statement identifies several objectives towards the realisation of the Vision. The first objective is to maintain real economic growth rates of between 6%
and 10% per year over a period of more than 20 years. But the experience of the last ten years of reform shows that strong measures are needed both to sustain the targeted economic growth and to ensure that development is inclusive. In spite of recent, relatively strong economic growth, high poverty levels have persisted around the 70% mark. The resurgence and expansion of copper mining and industry have contributed mainly to GDP growth and to foreign currency receipts, and not so much to overall employment levels. In 2008 a Labour Force Survey, conducted by the Central Statistical Office, showed that the highest percentage of skilled Zambians, when disaggregated by industry and occupation, were found in finance, insurance and real estate sectors, while the lowest number of qualified staff were in mining, construction and quarrying, accounting for only 0.3% of total employment in these sectors. This was also the case for manufacturing, transport and communication sectors, where skilled employment accounted for only 1.4% of the total.
Partly these trends could be explained by the absence or inadequacy of local skills
to meet the demands of the new, more technology-intensive systems and processes in the productive sectors of the economy. As a consequence, the economy is increasingly dependent on the importation of skilled labour, especially in the technical areas. The Millenium Challenge Account (MCA) Constraints Analysis for Zambia observes that there are "imbalances for specific skills such as for managers, technical engineers and other highly trained professionals". In other words, there is an oversupply of lowly skilled personnel and a short supply of higher trained people. The skills shortfalls adversely affect the employability and productivity of local labour and the reliance on imported skills increases the cost of doing business and reduces the competitiveness of the economy. This is a binding constraint to national development.
The figure below shows the percentage distribution of labour by sector based on the results of the 2006 Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS)
Fig. 1: Distribution of Labour by Sector
The bulk (70%) of the labour force was in agriculture. But estimates based on studies by the Government and the World Bank show that the real value added per worker in agriculture is marginal compared to industry and services. Furthermore, the total value added of the agricultural sector is not only small, but has been declining over time. For the period 2001~2006 agriculture contributed 0.3% to total real growth compared to 2.6% and 2.8% respectively for industry and services for the same period. The Constraints Analysis also attributes low income growth of the poor to a) the dominance of self-employment, mainly in agriculture; and b) limited growth of
wage employment.
The inference is compelling that higher rates of growth will be achieved by increasing the share of employment in industry and services relative to agriculture. Given the boom and bust cycles of the mining industry, there is, additionally, a strong economic imperative for diversification of the industrial base, expansion of the services sector and the promotion of business entrepreneurship. This will contribute to economic stability over the medium and long-term.
In sum, this analysis suggests three problems:
a) Employability of the labour force is limited by skills at many levels;
b) Labour productivity, and hence competitiveness and the cost of doing business, depends in part on labour skills;
c) Self-employment (mainly in the informal sector) depends on skill levels and is crucial for poverty reduction.
6.0 Challenges Facing the Construction Sector
According to Shakantu et al. (2000) the construction sector in Zambia consists of five main sub-sectors, namely, the design, assembly, manufacturing, supply and clientele.
The industry deals with the delivery and maintenance of buildings and infrastructure such as roads, railways, airports, bridges, dams and power stations. The production process that facilitates the construction industry involves legal and institutional relationships among clients, architects, engineers, surveyors, planners, contractors, manufacturers and material suppliers.
Agapiou et al (1995) also identified the craft skills required by the construction industry to include: bricklayers, carpenters, painters, plasterers, roofers, pavers, scaffolders, floorers, glaziers, plumbers, light/ventilation technicians, electricians, crane operators, plant operators, plant mechanics and steel-fixers. While the majority of the trade schools offer courses in bricklaying, carpentry and joinery, plastering, electrical and welding, there are no programmes for roofing, paving, scaffolding, glazing, light/ventilation technicians, crane operators and steel-fixers in trade schools.
There is evidence in every city and town in Zambia of high-rise buildings and other types of concrete structures that would have used scaffolding and steel-fixing expertise in their construction. It is also evident that there is wide usage of construction plant such as tower and mobile cranes in many construction operations countrywide. There is anecdotal evidence to support a view that steel-fixers and other such specialist skills acquire their training on the job in a rather informal and unconscious apprenticeship.
Without training programmes in roofing, paving, scaffolding, glazing and crane operations, it may also be argued that craft-persons with skills in these areas may also have acquired their trades on the job in a similar informal and unconscious manner.
This foretells an industry in limbo.
7.0 Development Challenges Facing the Tourism Sector
Tourism makes a significant contribution to Zambia’s economy. In 2005, nature tourism alone (when both direct and indirect effects are included) contributed nearly 16 percent of Zambian exports, 6.5 percent of GDP, 7 percent of government revenues, 10 percent of formal sector employment and nearly 6 percent of wages.
Taking into account other types of tourism outside of nature tourism, the economic contribution of the industry is likely to be even greater.
Zambia accounts for a small share of the regional and global tourism markets. The number of visitors to Zambia increased eightfold between 1995 and 2007, when it reached 897,413 international visitors, although visitor numbers have since declined.
In 2009 Zambia received 709,948 international visitors, equivalent to a 12.5 percent decline from 2008 (Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources).
Zambia has the natural resources and other tourism assets needed to attract a significantly larger number of tourists. The country is home to the iconic Victoria Falls and also has some world-class national parks and other wildlife-related attractions, including 19 National Parks and 34 Game Management Areas covering over 22.4 million hectares.
Zambian tourism is underperforming, both in relation to other countries in the region
and in relation to its own potential. Zambia receives significantly fewer tourists than might be expected, given its fundamental endowments. Given Zambia’s goal of promoting a high quality and high value brand in tourism, the service quality which permeates all aspects of a visitor’s experience is of crucial importance. Most of the industry leaders have cited the lack of a well-trained and motivated service labor force as a major impediment to tourism growth. While the availability and quality of skills training for the tourism sector has improved during recent years and various practical and vocational hospitality and guide training courses are being offered by technical colleges, industry leaders have been unanimous in their verdict that the quality of skills produced and applicability of the training remain inadequate. The Private Sector Business Association has out rightly indicated that they would be able to provide more jobs to local residents if they had access to a well trained and equipped work force.
8.0 Education and Skills Development System in Zambia
8.1 Policy Environment
Education plays a fundamental role in the overall development of a nation. It is for this reason that education has been declared by many countries as a human rights issue as attested to by the 1990 Jomtien declaration on Education For All and 1990 Convention on the Rights of the Child. As such, the Zambian government has recognized the important role education plays in grooming morally and intellectually upright individuals with the intentions of using the acquired skills and knowledge for the overall development of the country.
Since 1996, two major policies have been at play in as far as education and training provision was concerned, namely “Educating Our Future” and the TEVET, policy both of 1996. Despite these well-articulated policies, the last decade witnessed subdued expansion in the sector mainly as a result of new policy initiatives, which included among others, liberalized market economy with its attendant privatization, liquidation/
closure of industries and retrenchments, and the reintroduction of user service fees as a cost-sharing measure.
The embracement and implementation of these largely over ambitious policies of economic liberalization and privatization as blueprints for socio-economic transformation under Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), adversely affected all sectors of the economy including education. These new economic measures resulted in increased poverty levels, which manifested themselves in high unemployment, poor performance of the agriculture, education and health sectors, and growth of the informal sector at the expense of the shrinking formal sector. Education and poverty have definitely an impact on each other.
8.2 Challenges Facing the Education and Skills Sector
Zambia as a country has enshrined a number of its educational policies and programmes on the integration of the global declarations and National vision in it pursuit to deliver quality educational provision and systems. Zambia embraces the principals of Education for Fall (EFA) goals that were founded at the Jomtiem Conference in 1990 and were again reaffirmed in the Dakar conference in the year 2000. The Education for all goals placed special attention in ensuring that the education environment within the country focused on the expansion and improving of early childhood education and care, offering access to and completion of free and compulsory basic (primary) education of good quality, meeting education and training needs of all children as may be appropriate to their level and needs (adult literacy inclusive), reducing gender disparities and improving quality of Education and training at all levels.
In this regards, Zambia is making significant investments in expanding the basic and to some extent the high school education system. Similar corresponding investments have not been made at TVET and higher education / tertiary level. The demand for admission to tertiary education institutions is very high and is far from being satisfied.
For example, close to 100,000 pupils complete high school each year and an additional 300,000 leave the school systems at different levels which include Grades 7, 9 and 12. Of those that complete high school, 30,000 or more obtain the minimum entry requirements of public Universities but these only have a combined absorption capacity of about 16,000 per year. Further, access to TEVET is currently very low with capacity and vulnerability acting as major barriers. Of the 300,000 youths that
leave the school system every year, including those that may not be able to enter Universities, the TEVET system can only enroll or absorb about 14,000 students annually, that is about 4.6 percent rate of absorption. The total annual enrolment for TEVET and universities combined is estimated below 50,000, with a total youth population estimated at 2,910,297 for the year 2010. This gives a tertiary education Youth Gross Enrolment Ratio of about 2 percent.
The challenge for the Education sector especially TEVET is how best to provide opportunities and diversity of training pathways (increased access) in order to accommodate the increasing number of school-leavers, as well as existing out-of- school youth while maintain quality. It is inevitable that Zambia must find modalities of increasing access to quality and equitable skills training to enhance human capacity for sustainable national development. As long as the system does not supply the sectors with the right skill in the right quantities, development will remain a challenge for a long time.
9.0 Options for Increasing Accress to Quality and Equitable Education and Skills Training
It is Zambia’s intention to develop a system that allows for alternative modes of learning. The TEVET strategy paper 1997 envisaged learning based on four modes of training delivery to carter for the needs of different target groups namely:
ⅰ. Training Institution Based Learning;
ⅱ. Employment/ Workplace Based Learning (learning on the job);
ⅲ. Dual Based Learning (combining institutional and workplace learning); and
ⅳ. Open and Distance (e) Learning.
However, most of the education and training in Zambia has been mainly institutional based where learners have been confined to conventional training institutions. Some of our training institutions have not been recapitalized for a long time and therevfoe do not have the requisite tools and equipment to enable learners acquires the right skills. The following are the strategies that have been developed not only to enable
more learners access TVET but also provide the learners with an opportunity to interact with new knowledge and technology on the market.
ⅰ. The TEVET Learnership Scheme
In 2009, the then Minister of Science, Technology and Vocational Training launched the TEVET Learnership Scheme which is a dual mode of learning.
This mode of teaching and learning started with banking and finance programme but has since become the most preferred mode of teaching and learning for learners undertaking programmes in the Mining industry. There is a lot of opportunity in this area as it proves to be a very effective way of developing skills for modern industry under a system where some of our training institutions do not have adequate training equipment. This would be appropriate for skills development in the Construction and Tourism sectors
ⅱ. Workplace Based Learning
This is a mode that allows learners who may not have had any opportunity to enroll with a conventional training institution. This system recognizes that learners can accumulate knowledge, skills and attitudes required to function in a given trade or occupation at the workplace. People can acquire workplace skills in the course of carrying out informal sector economic activities as well.
The principles of Lifelong learning, and flexible entry and exit from the TEVET demands an RPL assessment schemes of formative nature; that is, assessments that will recognize acquired learning that might partially meet the requirements for award of a qualification. TEVETA has developed guidelines for the Recognition of Prior Learning to guide the implementation of system.
This approach is appropriate for lower level skill in the Construction and tourism sector as well
ⅲ. The Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
This pathway offers great opportunities for the many out of school youths and adult who may not have the opportunity to enrol with a conventional training school due to limited places. Global trends indicate that there is a sustained move towards the application of Open and Distance technologies for learning.
Further, human resource in the Zambian TEVET system is still very limited
to drive ODL at full scale. Teaching of practical skills, for example, requires using very precise instructions to enable the learner to follow the process and to repeat the skill. Most often this involves using visual clues, texts and audio prompts, and these actions require special skills in an instructor. Zambia has not yet advanced much in this area but it is recognised that we cannot afford to lag behind in respect of engaging the open and distance learning pathway in TEVET.
7.0 Conclusion
It is envisaged that through cooperation with developed TVET systems, Zambia may benefit from lessons of other countries on how to expand access to quality and equitable training systems for the benefit of the youthful population of Zambia that has remained underemployed due to lack of appropriate skills.