The analyses, comments and other opinions in this monograph are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Korea Institute for National Unification. Since the mid-1990s, one of the most important changes in North Korea has been the way in which the previously strict control over society is slowly loosening, mainly due to the economic crisis and official corruption.
Ideology and Power Structure
The Combination of a Military-first Ideology and Practical Socialism: The Possible Advent of Military-first
Therefore, it must be controlled through the spread and spread of a 'revolutionary military culture first'. Third, the military-first approach should be implemented as a mechanism to spread practical socialism throughout society.
The Continuation and Change of the Sole Leadership (suryong) System
North Korea emphasizes the one-hearted unity of the top (upper side), the party, the army and the popular masses of the revolution. The decline of party functions and power and the institutionalization of politics in the first place of the military.
The Decline of the Party’s Functions and Power, and the Institutionalization of Military-first Politics
The Party's status remains high as the heart of social policy in the first military era. Essentially, senior military officials are appointed as senior officials of the Party Central Committee.
The Generational Shifts
First of all, in terms of the age difference between predecessors and successors, Kim Yang-Gon (born 1942), the Director of the Department, is six years younger than his predecessor Rim Tong Ok (born 1936). Kim Kyok Sik (born 1944), Chief of Staff, is nine years younger than his predecessor Kim Yong Chun (born 1935), Vice-Chairman of the National Defense Committee.
The Heir to the Helm: The Attributes of the One- man Ruling System and How it Combines with the
However, if the coming succession to power is carried out in the normal manner by Kim Jong-il, the adoption of the collective governance systems of the Soviet Union or China seems unlikely. But the fact that Kim Jong-il was not given any of the highest positions distinguishes the new system from the old.
The Theory of New Institutionalism 3 and the Changes in the North Korean Economy
Institutional changes are not always implemented efficiently because the mismatch between institutions and organizations interacts with the embodiment of the objectives of the institutional changes. Accordingly, the process of institutional change can be described as (1) the formation and development of organizations through incentive systems provided by institutions and the lock-ins of the institutions by the organizations, and (2) the feedback from individuals on the changes in chances. . The process of institutional change, based on the interdependence between institutions and organizations and the tension between formal rules and informal constraints, provides a sufficient explanation for the development and decline of the economy.
The Economic Crisis and Institutional Changes in North Korea
Institution-to-Organization relations before the Economic Crisis
Such socialist values are reflected in North Korea's distribution system, where rations account for a significant amount of actual income both in the form of indirect income. Sin-lim Choi and Suk-ki Lee explain that half of the average worker's salary is given in the form of rations.6 According to North Korean defectors, it is assumed that even now political and moral incentives such as loyalty or birth origin are valued more attention than material incentives. To summarize, in the institution-organization relationship before the economic crisis in North Korea, where the existence of the distribution system disturbed the new wage system by discouraging material incentives and gave more weight to political moral incentives, productivity was unlikely to increase. .
The Economic Crisis and the Formation of the Informal System
- The Changes in Institutions and Organization after the 7.1 Measures
In the mid-1980s it began to decline due to the problems in the collective farming system and the lack of farming material. Furthermore, private companies (gaeinhuisa) began to appear on a relatively large scale in the fishing, transport and trade sectors. Under these circumstances, people necessarily paid more money to engage in the economic activities possible in informal institutions.
The Restoration of a Planned Economy in the late 1990s and the 7.1 Measures
It has been argued that the '7.1 measures' implied some official recognition of the informal economic institutions, incentives and gradual changes of organization, which were implicitly allowed under some observation for the last ten years of the crisis, during and after the Difficult March. More precisely, with the '7.1 measures' on board, more emphasis began to be placed on the changes in the price mechanism, the application of incentives and the Doklipchasanje (independent profit system). First, there was the argument, essentially one of self-criticism19 that the ineffectiveness of the previous institutions caused economic crisis.
Institutional Changes
In March 2003, Chairman Kim Jong-il led the reform and expansion of farmers' markets into collective markets. According to a North Korean defector, in May 2003 there was a decree by Chairman Kim Jong-il which "encouraged the use of the market for the convenience of ordinary people".20 Collective markets were established across the country and became public enterprises that they operated systematically as a unit. 20 According to him, it is also directed to determine the size of the market taking into account various circumstances.
Changes in the Incentive System
Changes in Organization
As the present distribution system operates on the basis of self-reliance, only able-bodied workers in factories and enterprises could receive rations. Nevertheless, the normalization of the production line did not progress due to the insufficient supply of resources, as well as the economic situation of factories and companies after that. Above all, the production units were more concerned with the price of goods than with the quantity of goods.
Changes in the Lives of North Koreans
The Expansion and Reinforcement of Autonomy and Activeness
Due to the elimination of rations and price increases, people had to work to support themselves; however, a system of incentives based on productivity did the most to increase the appetite for work.30 Saetomins also witnessed the ways in which "illegal (unofficial) independence" increased in workplaces. As workplaces such as factories and companies have become more autonomous, control over behaviors such as leaving the workplace without notice and absenteeism has weakened.
Growth of Commerce
One of the other reasons can be found in inflation, the subsequent decline in consumption and the abundance of people involved in private business, all of which could have been possible as a result of the 7.1 Measures.
Deepening Economic Hardship
Intensification of the Rich-Get-Richer Phenomenon In general, economic reform cannot only enhance productivity
- Changes in the Mentality of the North Koreans A. Learning and Accepting Capitalism
Through repeated, ideological education carried out over a long period of time, the North Korean government ensures that the people understand capitalism as a negative influence and view it in the same light as a hostile and evil concept such as imperialism and economic exploitation. However, there were changes in people's understanding of capitalism as the food and economic situation worsened in the 1990s. More positive changes came when commercial transactions became legalized and expanded following measures 7.1.
The Spread and Increase in Criticism against Chairman Kim Jong-il
Since the food crisis, North Koreans realized that North Korea is a poor country, which has led to negative opinions about Kim Jong-il. People who have been to China to visit relatives and do business discovered that North Korea is a poor country because they saw and heard evidence of this firsthand. They started to think that the country is going under because of the dictatorship of Kim Jong-il.37.
Positive Opinions of South Korea and the Spread of South Korean Culture
Although South Korean society is economically developed and people are well off, North Koreans still believe that South Korea is a country that does what the US says. As students reach the upper grades of high school, they sometimes secretly imitate South Korean style within themselves.43 According to Saetomins, the experiences in China since the economic crisis have given North Koreans in particular an impetus to change their perception of the South -To renew Korean culture. 41 Research Institute for the North Korea Association of Close Friends, “North Korea Today”; Lately, North Korean authorities have been monitoring the trend of watching South Korean films among the people, especially teenagers, and are severely punishing those caught watching the films.
The Spread of Individualism and Materialism
- The Deterioration of Public Education and its Privatization
However, as the economic crisis has intensified, the North Korean people began to develop a new understanding of private property and the value of money, and have come to feel the importance and necessity of owning private property and money. As the understanding of the importance and need for money among North Koreans has increased since the 7․1 measures, the power of money in North Korean society has also grown. But according to saetomins, since the economic crisis, it has been impossible to get a job, even with a university degree, and the possibility of choosing one's own job has become impossible.
The Crippled Operation of School Education and its Restoration
Teachers were also affected by the food situation, leaving them with no choice but to leave school. When food shortages continued, there was no point in forcing teachers to stay; they in turn were allowed to leave to get food while the other remaining teachers took care of the students. Some parents volunteered to help teachers, but when the food situation deteriorated, both parents and students were directly asked to take food to their teachers.
The Decrease in Government Aid and the Increase in Private Spending for Public Education
Except for a few privileged universities50, which receive state aid to maintain and improve the teaching environment, in most universities all costs are covered by professors and students. The decrease in government funding for education and the resulting increase in private spending has had negative consequences in terms of the government's own ideology, which has supported free education since liberation. Some North Koreans commented that "the government no longer protects us because it is not the country but the people themselves who should buy all the necessary products from shoes to notebooks."
The Advent of Private Education
- The Advent of Development Education and Gifted
In addition, the conscription system of military service and the affirmative action system for retired soldiers contributed to the increase in private education. In addition, private education is not yet institutionalized as hakwons (private institutes) in South Korea. The emergence and growth of private education is a very important indicator that allows us to predict the future direction of education in North Korea.
The North Korean Version of Development Education
Although no exact data is available on the extent of private tutoring, it is a widely held opinion among North Koreans that “private tutoring is widespread among those interested in their children's education.” At some point, private tutoring was no longer a secret and there were almost no government regulations against private tutoring. First, “pragmatism in education” means promoting human resources in the field in question for a short period of time by strengthening education in science and technology, especially information technology and computer skills. This is reflected in the expansion of education for gifted and talented people in secondary and higher education.
Education for Development: Computer and Information Technology Education
Despite all these positive measures to improve IT education, there are many challenges to overcome. To overcome these obstacles, North Korea is trying to send people to study abroad or conduct research visits for short periods. Changes in the education system from an egalitarian-centered education system to the gifted and talented.
Changes in the Education System from an Egalitarianism- centered System of Education to Gifted and Talented
- The ‘Modernization’ of Education and the Expansion of Corruption
Taking steps to expand Middle School I enrollment in the late 1990s was qualitatively different from previous moves. In addition, a certain number of dropouts are replaced by students from a regular middle school who have passed a special exam in order to transfer. Establishment of extensive numbers of Middle School I's resulted in a concentration of the already limited educational resources in these schools.
Improving the Educational Method and the ‘Modernization’
Recently, for the purposes of differentiated education, students have had to create their own curriculum based on their abilities, talents and reasons for studying. 54. In particular, "intellectual education" is emphasized as a standard when we want to improve educational methods at the primary, secondary and higher levels of education. "Intellectual education" for students is "making sense of what they have learned through their language and thinking."55 This is based on the belief that intellectual education is the most appropriate method for developing scientists and technicians who need a wealth of intellectual skills. such as thinking, observing, memorizing and imagining.56.
The Spread of Practices: Corruption and Injustice Various efforts to improve the quality of education were ultimately
Another prominent change in the power structure is the strengthening of the National Defense Commission. There is a close connection between such changes in people's lifestyles and the changes in their mentality. The most significant change in the mentality of the North Korean people is the change in values.
