Marriage Life to Widowhood: An Inquiry on the Quality of Life of a Widow
Bernard V. Gerona1*
1 University of San Agustin, Iloilo City, Philippines
*Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Accepted: 15 March 2021 | Published: 1 April 2021
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Abstract: Researches on Widow from the sociological to financial had been published (Corden et al., 2001; Mallan, 1975, Sevak, Weir, & Willis, 2003; Sander & Iams, 2007; Burkhauser, 1994, however, rarely where an informant is Filipino had been studied where cultural context is equally important. A widow is a woman whose husband died (Jamadar et.al, 2015). This study utilized narration as a method of narrative research on the Widow. It described and analyzed the lived-experiences of a widow and established a narrative representation of their life, the factors or transitions as well as her adjustments and struggles. The Informant of the study is a Widow chosen after confirmation through referral. Themes on the informant emerged: Married Life, Transitioning from Married Life to Widowhood, and Family which plays a vital role in the life of a widow. The result of the study shows that a family life where both parents are present and performing specific roles is a less stressful life, and the Death of a husband resulted in adjustment and struggles of the widow specifically in the financial aspects. Aside from finances, the psychological transition is present in the widow after the death of her husband where the widow shows excessive distress on the children’s wellbeing.
Added, family, and friends play a vital role in the well-being of the widow and her children, and it also helps the widow to go beyond household work. It was the death of her husband which led her to find a job for her family’s well-being. Lastly, this study provides a different cultural perspective on the life of a widow from the socio-economic and inward outlook of their actual lives.
Keywords: Widow, Widowhood, Marriage Life, Family
_________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
“No woman should lose her status, livelihood or property when her husband dies, yet millions of widows in our world face persistent abuse, discrimination, disinheritance, and destitution”
(United Nations Statement for International Widows Day, 2014). In societies where the husband is the sole provider, his death can leave his family destitute (Jamadar et.al, 2015).
Added, there is a reduction in the living standard of many wives at all levels after the death of their husbands (Auerbach and Kotlikoff, 1989).
A widow is a woman whose husband has died (Jamadar et.al, 2015) and presumptively showing a sign of needing a quality of life (Sevak et.al., 2003; Chen, 2001; Mannan, 2002; Eboh, 2005).
This Quality of life, according to World Health Organization (1996), defined as an individual's perceptions of their position in the context of the value system in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectation, standards, and concerns”. Moreover, widows experience a reduction in living standards regardless of the levels of income (Auerbach & Kotlikoff, 1989; Gillen &
Kim,2009). As add to the transition, there is a lack of services to support to the grieving family
and the widow in the society (Rolls & Payne, 2007; Stokes et al., 1999; Sanders et.al, 2008). This study focused on the Life of a Widow before and after the death of her husband.
2. Literature Review
Life of Widow and its nature
A widow is a woman whose husband died (Jamadar et.al, 2015). In this study, a woman whose husband died after separation, annulment, or divorce is excluded in the study. To start, providing care for the family is important because the death of a parent fractures the entire family system (Rodger et al., 2006-7) and funeral costs were a common cause of difficulty (Corden et al.,2001). Mallan (1975) said that the circumstances before and after the loss of a spouse can have a significant impact on the wellbeing of widows and their households.
Realistically, women have only a few options available to improve their economic status that is why they faced with the loss of resources in widowhood (Sevak, Weir, & Willis, 2003).
Moreover, the study reveals that there is a high rate of poverty among widows, especially those living alone, which is a primary concern for the elderly (1994; Sandell and Iams 1997). On the other hand, there is a study claimed that bereaved partners at younger ages may be more vulnerable (Barker and Hancock, 2000; Wong, 2005). It is supported by another study where women widowed at younger ages are at greatest risk for economic hardship after widowhood, and their situation declines with the duration of widowhood (Sevak, Weir & Willis, 2003).
Another study showed that widows were less likely to escape poverty than couples (Burkhauser et al., 1988; Holden et al., 1986, 1988; Hurd and Wise, 1989; Zick and Smith, 1986). Those aforementioned finding showed the widening inequalities in wealth and income in old age, alongside demographic trends in health and life expectancy, suggest increasing geographical and social class differences in the financial implications of the death of a partner (DH, 2008;
Mitchell et al., 2000; Shaw et al., 2005). Some say remarrying will create a positive effect but data reveal the difficulty in remarrying because of demographic imbalances such as shorter male life expectancy. Moreover, Widow who have children possess more struggle as compare to those who do not have (Kwok et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2004; Worden & Silverman, 1993) and these struggle in parenting and raising children alone was reported among young widowed (Hooyman & Kramer, 2006; Kwok et al, 2005; Lowe & McClement, 2010-11;
McGoldrick & Walsh, 2004; Rodgers, 2006-7; Rolls &Payne, 2007; Shaffer, 1993; Walter, 2006). Another study shows that most widows get support from family or friends immediately after the loss but temporarily (Ginsburg, 1997; Silverman, 2004; Worden, 2009). Aside from the usual and daily child-rearing, widow have the utmost responsibility, which data show that it is stressful, to help their respective children adapting the loss of their father (Bradley, 2007;
Haine et al., 2006; Kwok et al., 2005; Lin et al, 2004; Lutzke et al., 1997; Saldinger et al., 2004;
Sandler et al., 2008; Silverman & Worden, 1993; Worden, 2009). Additionally, there were studies showing that the relationship of the widow to their in-laws became strained after the death of their husband (Ginsburg, 1997; McGoldrick & Walsh, 2004; Walter, 1996). Added to it, there is a lack of services to support the grieving family which a challenge to a young widow (Rolls & Payne, 2007; Sandler et al., 2008; Stokes et al., 1999; Sander et.al, 2008). Sevak, Weir & Willis (2003) find some evidence that widows live with children or siblings so that they can be part of a household with more resources. It is also supported by Worden and Silverman (1993) which found that widowed parents with more children and those with younger children, fewer financial resources, lesser support from friends and family.
Comparatively, widowed parents commonly have fewer resources than married parents including financial resources (Couch, Tamborini, Reznik, & Phillips, 2011) Although earning income through work is the main way women can improve their status, it becomes increasingly difficult to achieve with age (Sevak, Weir & Willis, 2003). Lastly, widows of all ages are more
commonly living at or below the poverty threshold and more often require social program assistance (Munnell, 2004; Weaver, 2010).
Life of a Widow before spousal death
The life of widows can trigger poverty and increase the likelihood of persistent poverty (Kemp et al., 2004; Smith and Middleton, 2007). Moreover, widowhood does increase the incidence of poverty among women who were not poor when married, the substantial number of widows in poverty reflects the poor economic status that continued from marriage to widowhood (Sevak, Weir & Willis, 2003). This is a possible result of having no or lack knowledge in their pre-bereavement circumstance and it is more likely to lead to difficulty on the impact of spousal’s death (Morgan, 1981). Moreover, spousal death was often cited as a trigger for financial planning by the bereaved widow (Kemp et al., 2005). Among young widows show unpreparedness and lack of anticipation of the death of their husbands without realizing that said loss will have a detrimental effect after their support has left (Feinberg, 2009; Ginsburg, 1997; Morgan, 1989; Worden, 2009). On the other hand, for the older widows, the death of the husband who has an occupational pension has a significant impact on the widow’s income (Disney et al., 1997: 164-65) and the financial implications of the death of a partner (Disney et al., 1997: 165). In the study of Thoit (2010) similar finding came out where women who relied on husbands for financial support may identify more with their role as a spouse and (or) a homemaker, making the transition to employee and sole-provider more difficult than for those already in the paid labor force. On the other hand, younger bereaved partners are increasingly likely to be from poorer backgrounds and economically disadvantaged areas (Dorling, 1997;
Willets et al., 2004). It is supported by Sevak, Weir & Willis (2003) where poor women are more likely to become widowed at a young age, because of the relationship between mortality and socioeconomic status. Another study shows that widow is more likely to be affected by the loss of their partner’s pension income, and less likely to have a separate pension entitlement of their own (Price, 2006, 2007). Added, if bereavement is accompanied by reduced economic resources or insufficient income, grieving can be prolonged or intensified (Hansson and Stroebe, 2006; Murdoch et al., 1998). Moreover, a widow who had shared responsibilities, when their husbands were still alive, is more likely to adjust easily (Tennan et al., 2007). On the other hand, if the widow had little involvement in managing household finances, when the spouse was still around, find it hard to take over the new responsibilities and these problems and uncertainties about having to handle new roles in household budgeting, including buying food and paying household bills (Gentry et al., 1995; Tennan et al., 2007). Moreover, there was evidence from surveys and qualitative research that most parents lacked access to advise about financial benefits although many wanted this. An audit of a specialized welfare rights advocacy service which was part of social work provision in a London hospice showed the widespread need for welfare benefits advice and advocacy among parents, carers, and bereaved carers (Levy and Payne, 2006). Another data show where there is a period spent caring for a disabled or ill family member can have adverse effects on income and employment (Carmichael and Charles, 1998; Henz, 2004), and increase living costs and risk of debt (Balmer et al., 2005;
Smith et al., 2004). The negative financial consequences of caregiving may persist long after the death of the person cared for and reduce pension entitlements (Evandrou and Glaser, 2003;
McLaughlin and Ritchie, 1994; Chesson and Todd, 1996; Jenkinson, 2003). Financial problems which arose after the death were also related to the expenses of the caring periods;
patterns of expenditure established during the child’s life took time to change, and the extra costs of care meant that some families had got into debt (Corden et al.,2001). Due to the greater likelihood of raising children, and the lesser likelihood of financial preparedness, younger widows are at greater risk for financial stress than their older counterparts (Smith & Zick, 1986). In terms of finding a job, widows who have positive experiences with labor force
participation tend to report greater social support resources (Pai & Barrett, 2007). Moreover, widows who have lost their husbands during their earning years may have the added worry of finding employment to help replace the income of their spouse (Scannell-Desch, 2005)
In the psychological aspects which have an indirect effect on the financial stability, there were studies showed, even though there was the difference in the experience of the financial stress associated with bereavement but those studies show there is financial stress even among widow and it has a protective effect on women’s economic well-being (Lillard and Waite, 1995;
Martikainen and Valkonen, 1998; Stroebe et al., 2001). Moreover, psychological constituents of grieving, such as fear, anger, guilt, and gaining new identities (Parkes, 1996) can all be affected by constructs of financial responsibility and economic well-being. These might include feelings about perceived economic roles of partner and self; feeling better off or worse off, or feeling more or less financially dependent. Such financial preparation by talking things over with a partner before their death also appears to offer some protection for psychological well-being following bereavement and reduce the stresses caused by financial problems (O’Bryant and Morgan, 1989).
Life of a Widow after spousal death
In societies where the husband is the sole provider, his death can leave his family destitute (Jamadar et.al, 2015). Varied data shows a reduction in the standard of living among widows regardless of the levels of income (Auerbach & Kotlikoff, 1989; Gillen & Kim,2009). New widows reported their post-loss household income dropped by more than 300% (Sevak et al., 2003). Research on financial stress in widowhood suggests that younger age and longer time being widowed were both associated with increased money problems (Sevak et al., 2003).
Widowed parents with limited financial resources are commonly working multiple and (or) low-paying jobs (Shapiro, 1996). Additionally, widows who lose their husbands in their 50’s have an increased risk of poverty because many may not have completed their savings preparations for retirement (Sevak et al., 2003). Another thing widow need help in maintaining the household financial obligations where sufficient income has been found to buffer against a number of maladaptive challenges (e.g., access to transportation, adequate nutrition, and health care) during the period of adjustment to widowhood (Holden & Smock, 1991; Morgan, 1981, 1986). The effort and energy expended to care for the financial needs of the household can limit a lot of things in their family life (Shapiro, 1996) Losing a partner may also involve losing a portion or even all of the household income and benefits. Longer widowhood, therefore, becomes an important factor associated with the elevated risk for living in poverty during early to middle adulthood (Sevak et al., 2003). Another study shows that widows can lead to a disadvantage in socio-economic and impairment in wellbeing for women (Chen, 2001;
Mannan, 2002; Eboh, 2005). Even high-income countries show an effect of widowhood (Stroebe et al, 2007) such as economic vulnerability and impaired quality of life (Sevak, Weir, and Willis, 2003; Elwert and Christakis, 2006). In Britain, social policy literature shows that bereaved people have the risk of poverty and problem debt (Kemp et al., 2004). In this study, it will seek to understand if the same or different result will reveal. Another study shows that the death of a partner has been shown to be a trigger for claiming income support such as social assistance from the government (Shaw et al., 1996). Lastly, when women are widowed prior to the age of 60, during the period during which they are not yet eligible for Social Security benefits, the earlier and unexpected loss may precipitate the need for a more rapid drawdown of household assets (Sevak et al., 2003).
3. Methodology
This chapter includes the discussions on the research method employ in the study, the Key Informant and the criteria involved in choosing informant, the guide question and its validity and reliability and the data analysis and research procedure.
Research Design
This research is a qualitative study employing Narrative inquiry which is a design of inquiry which, in this study which is appropriate in capturing detailed stores or life experiences particularly the quality of Life of a Widow where there is collect description of event (Creswell, 2007). Moreover, the information gathered will be retold or re-storied by the researcher into a narrative (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000) and configure them into a story using a plot line (Creswell, 2007).
Key Informant
The Informant of the study is a (1) Widow located in one of the cities in Western Visayas which will be chosen after confirmation from the referral of an acquaintance. This is the mechanism to confirm that a selected informant is a married woman whose husband died where the duration death is not less than a year.
The purposive sampling method employ in the selection of the participants through snowball method in the study.
Data Gathering Instrument
The data-gathering instrument use in this research is a researcher-made guide question on the quality of life of a widow.
The instrument has two parts, part I question the informant’s profile then part II for the guide questions on the quality of life of a widow.
The Informant's profile data include sex, age, occupation, etc. The second part is a questionnaire on guide questions on the quality of life of a widow which includes her experience before the death of her husband, whether her life was affected by the death of her husband, the transition that she’d experience after the death of her husband, and whether she was able to support herself and her family.
Data Analysis & Procedure
Upon re-checking and re-reading, the research instrument will be personally administered by the researcher to the target informant.
To analyze the obtained data, the following method will be utilized: (1) Interview and (2) Observation of the Key Informant.
After the recording of the interviews and observation of the Informants, it will be subject to transcription and then, translation from the Local Language used by the Informant to English (Language understandable to readers).
To validate the obtained data, the following validation strategies by Creswell & Miller (2002) were utilized: (1) Theoretical Triangulation where there will utilization of multiple and different sources to provide corroborating evidence; (2) Clarifying where the researcher comments on the past
experiences, biases, etc. that might shape the researcher’s interpretation and approaches to the study.
To further analyze and interpret the obtained data, the coding and analytic meme writing by Saldana (2016) will be utilized to provide proper sources and descriptions in the retelling stories of the quality of life of a widow.
4. Conclusion
The story of the widow in the study can be, theoretically, explained by Social Convoy Model by Antonucci,T. Ajrouch K. Birditt, K. (2011) where the widow is surrounded by support others, in this study her supportive family, loving children, and generous friends, who move with the widow throughout her life course where there was a giving and receiving social support. Moreover, a widow who received strong support after the death of their respective spouse tends to live with stability while those who lack the said support struggle in achieving stability. In this study, Widow overcomes the transition from Marriage Life to Widowhood because she was able to receive social support from the immediate members of the family and friend of her husband in the market, her friends in the Catholic Organization and this support, realistically, range from emotional to economic in nature.
The Widow is an 80-year-old woman having 8 children and a deceased husband died for 18 years old (Jamadar et.al, 2015). She belongs to the 5 members of the family where she has three women which she is the eldest among women and two oldest brothers. Her husband used to work in the City Hall as a tax collector specifically in the Supermarket and ended after he died from a stroke. When her husband was still alive, her only function is to tend the housework including attending to the needs of our children.
All throughout the narration, she was highly concerned about providing care for her family which fractures the entire family after the death of the husband (Rodger et al., 2006). Since she has 5 children which result in her worries about how she was able to take of her children (Kwok et al., 2005; Lin et al., 2004; Worden & Silverman, 1993) and she struggled in her parenting and raising children (Hooyman & Kramer, 2006; Kwok et al, 2005; Lowe &
McClement, 2011; McGoldrick & Walsh, 2004; Rodgers, 2007; Rolls &Payne, 2007; Shaffer, 1993; Walter, 2006) which was the result of her dependent to her husband where the death of her husband led to detrimental effect specifically his support to the family which some similar to the study of these studies (Feinberg, 2009; Ginsburg, 1997; Morgan, 1989; Worden, 2009) but the difference is in this study the informant is an old widow and a middle-age where his husband died. Moreover, her narration of dependency is similar to the result of Thoit (2010) where the women who relied on husbands for financial support, making the transition to employee and sole-provider more difficult than for those already in the paid labor force and with little difference to findings of a study of Gentry et al., (1995) and Tennan et al. (2007) where its difference is that her in the study the widow when his husband is still alive she manages household finance but the money came from his husband while their similarities in finding are that the widow finds it hard to take over the new responsibilities and these problems and uncertainties about having to handle new roles in the source of income and paying household bills.
Initially, she had experienced difficulty in the funeral costs (Corden et al.,2001) but this difficulty was solved when her father urged her brother and sister to shoulder the said expenses and the contribution of the friend of her husband in the market where his husband was a tax
collector. She was able to live a life less stressful and fewer worries where her husband provided all the need in the family, except the household chores, but when her husband dies, it resulted in a significant impact, both positive and negative, on the well-being of widows (Mallan, 1975). The widow, in her transition, has only a few options available to improve their economic status, in her case was to find a job to take of her children, that is why they faced the loss of resources in widowhood (Sevak, Weir, & Willis, 2003). Though she was not able to escape poverty or not even better lifestyle than her husband (Burkhauser et al., 1988; Holden et al., 1986, 1988; Hurd and Wise, 1989; Zick and Smith, 1986) she was able to remove her worries after she became a regular employee and was able to send her children to school even to college studies. Still, it has financial implications after the death of her husband (DH, 2008;
Mitchell et al., 2000; Shaw et al., 2005) where she narrated how she planned out the needs of her child specifically in financial aspect like food, education, etc. which similar to the result of Kemp et al. (2005) where spousal death urged financial planning by the bereaved widow.
In several studies conducted on widow show that most widows get support from family or friend immediately after the loss but temporarily (Ginsburg, 1997; Silverman, 2004; Worden, 2009) but in this study, the support that she got from friend stopped after burial but due to how they were reared by their parents especially her father, as narrated by the widow, she was able to receive continuous assistance from her sibling ranges from daily need to her children’s college education.
Results of the study from these researches (Bradley, 2007; Haine et al., 2006; Kwok et al., 2005; Lin et al, 2004; Lutzke et al., 1997; Saldinger et al., 2004; Sandler et al., 2008; Silverman
& Worden, 1993; Worden, 2009) is consistence to the situation of the widow where aside from the household chore like child-rearing, widow have the utmost responsibility, where the widow said was stressful on how she was able to help her respective children after the loss of their husband. She also narrated that her husband used to spoil their children and highly generous when it comes to food despite their poverty.
A year when her husband died and exhausted the money from the husband’s insurance, she was thinking of finding a job as her source of income to support her children’s needs which consistent to result of the study of Sevak, Weir & Willis (2003) stating that earning income through work is the main way women can improve their status, it becomes increasingly difficult to achieve with age and in her case, she was 43 year during that time.
Moreover, the findings of the study show that a Family life where both parents are present and performing the specific roles is a less stressful life like in the interview the husband is the provider while the wife takes care of the children and the house. The Death of a husband resulted in adjustment and struggles to the widow specifically in the financial aspects such as food, education, other necessity for child-rearing. Aside from finances, the psychological transition is present in the widow after the death of her husband where the widow shows excessive distress on how she would take care of her children while enduring the bereavement from losing her husband. Added, family and friends play a vital role in the well-being of the widow from the employment of the education, studies of children, food and other needs for the burial, expenses in the hospitalization which all of these help the widow in her transition to widowhood. Based on the narratives of the widow, the significant factors which lead the widow to go beyond household work was the death of her (in which she has no longer have a provide), her love for her children specifically tending all their needs, her shyness to ask help from her sibling lead her to find a job for her family’s well-being.
Lastly, the Quality of life of a widow revolves around the well-being of the family where all of them belong to the environment where the widow is too dependent on the husband where the husband provides almost all the needs in the family and the husband died, the wife suffers excessive worry on she can play both roles as provider and nurturer toward her children but this event also open an opportunity where widow learned she is also capable in providing the need of her children including paying their tuitions for their studies. Family members especially her sibling, her friends & friends of her husbands, and her children is a vital factor in her transition from married life to widow where, despite her excessive worry, her brother and sister help her in the hospital and burial expenses, her friend proving spiritual and moral support, her husband friends who send assistance from food to helping her in the wake, and her child which is her source of strength and inspiration to move forward despite the death of her husband so she can tend the need of her children which all help her get rid of such worry and proceed to productive work such as working in the City Hall. Lastly, all results and interpretations in this study are only applicable to the informants and thus, cannot be generalized to all.
References
Antonucci,T. Ajrouch K. & Birditt, K. (2013) The Convoy Model: Explaining Social Relations from a Multi-Perspective. Institude of Social Research. Sage Publication.
Auerbach, A. et.al., (1989). The Dynamics of an Aging Population: The Case of Four OECD Countries. National Bureau of Economic Research.
Balmer, N., Pleasence, P., Buck, A. and Walker, H. (2005). Worried sick: the experience of debt problems and their relationship with health, illness and disability, Social Policy &
Society.
Barker, G. and Hancock, R. (2000). The income dimension, in Hirsch, D. (ed.), Life After 50:
Issues for policy and research, York Publishing Services, York, pp 44-91.
Barlow, A., Burgoyne, C., Clery, E. and Smithson, J. (2008). Cohabitation and the law: myths, money and the media, in Park, A., Curtice, J., Thomson, K., Phillips, M., Johnson, M. &
Clery, E. (eds), British Social Attitudes: The 24th report, Sage, London, pp 29-51.
Bradley, R. H. (2007). Parenting in the breach. How parents help children cope with developmentally challenging circumstances. Parenting: Science and practice, 7(2), 99- 148.
Burgoyne, C. and Morison, V. (1997) Money in remarriage: keeping things simple – and separate, Sociological Review, 44, 363-95.
Burkhauser, R. (1994). Public policies for the working poor: The earned income tax credit vs.
minimum wage legislation.
Burkhauser, R., Holden, K. and Feaster, D. (1988). Incidence, timing, and events associated with poverty: a dynamic view of poverty in retirement. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 45, S46-S52.
Burkhauser, R., Holden, K. and Myers, D. (1986). Marital disruptions and poverty: the role of survey procedures in artificially creating poverty, Demography, 23, 621-3
Carmichael, F. and Charles, S. (1998). The labour market costs of community care. Journal of Health Economics, 17, 747-65
Chen M. (2001). Perpetual mourning: widowhood in rural India. Oxford University.
Chesson, R. and Todd, C. (1996). Bereaved carers: recognising their needs. Elderly Care, 16- 18.
Clandinin & Connelly (2000). Narrative Inquiry: Experience and Story in Qualitative Research.
Jossey-Bass, Inc.
Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design (2nd Ed,). Sage Publication.
Creswell & Miller (2002). Validity in Qualitative Evaluation: Linking Purposes, Paradigms,
and Perspectives. International Journal of Qualitative Methods
Corden, A., Sainsbury, R. and Sloper, P. (2001). Financial Implications of the Death of a Child.
Family Policy Studies Centre, London.
Couch, K. A., Tamborini, C. R., Reznik, G. L., & Phillips, J. W. (2011). Impact of DH.
Department of Health (2008). Tackling Health Inequalities: 2007 status report on the programme for action. Health Inequalities Unit, Department of Health, London.
Disney, R., Grundy, E. and Johnson, P. (eds) (1997). The Dynamics of Retirement. Research Report No 77, Department of Social Security, The Stationery Office, London.
Dorling, D. (1997). Death in Britain: How local mortality rates have changed: 1950s to 1990s.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York Publishing Services, York.
Eboh L. & Boye, T (2005). Widowhood in African Society and its effects on women's health.
Elwert F, Christakis NA (2006). Widowhood and Race. American Sociological Review.
006;71:16–41.
Evandrou, M. & Glaser K. (2003). Combining work and family life: the pension penalty of caring. Ageing & Society, 23, 583-601.
Feinberg, L. (2009). I’m grieving as fast as I can: How young widows and widowers can cope and heal (10th reprint). Far Hills, NJ: New Horizon Press.
Gentry, J., Kennedy, P., Paul, C. & Hill, R. (1995). Family transitions during grief:
discontinuities in household consumption patterns. Journal of Business Research, 67-79.
Gillen M. & Kim, H. (2009). Older Women and Poverty Transition: Consequences of Income Source Changes From Widowhood. Sage Publication
Ginsburg, G. D. (1997). Widow to widow: Thoughtful, practical ideas for rebuilding your life (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press.
Goode, William J. (1960). "A Theory of Role Strain". American Sociological Review. 25 (4):
483–496.
Haine, R., Wolchik, S., Sandler, I., Millsap, R. & Ayers, T. (2006). Positive parenting as a protective resource for parentally bereaved children. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 52(2), 145-161
Hansson, R. and Stroebe, M. (2006) Bereavement in Late Life: Development, coping, and adaptation, American Psychological Association, Washington.
Henz, U. (2004). The effects of informal care on paid work participation in Great Britain: a life course perspective, Ageing & Society, 24, 851-80.
Holden, K. C., & Smock, P. J. (1991). The economic costs of marital dissolution: Why do women bear a disproportionate cost?. Annual Review of Sociology, 17, 51-78.
Holden, K., Burkhauser, R. and Myers, D. (1986). Income transitions at older stages of life:
the dynamics of poverty, The Gerontologist, 26, 292-97.
Hooyman, N. R. & Kramer, B. J. (2006). Living through loss: interventions across the life span. Columbia University Press.
Hurd, M. and Wise, D. (1989). The wealth and poverty of widows: assets before and after the husband’s death, in Wise, D. (ed.), The Economics of Aging Up, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 177-200.
Jamadar, C, Melkere, D., Holkar, A (2015). Quality of Life Among Widows. The International Journal of Indian Psychology
Jenkinson, A. (2003). Past Caring: The beginning not the end, Promenade Publishing, Edinburgh Journal on African Health Science; 5(4):348
Kemp, P., Bradshaw, J., Dornan, P., Finch, N. & Mayhew, E. (2004). Routes Out of Poverty:
A research review, Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York Publishing Services, York.
Kwok, O., Haine, R., Sandler, I., Ayers, T., Wolchik, S. & Tein, J. (2005). Positive parenting as a mediator of the relations between parent psychological distress and mental health
problems of parentally bereaved children. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology, 34(2), 260-271.
Levy, J. and Payne, M. (2006). Welfare rights advocacy in a specialist health and social care setting: a service audit. British Journal of Social Work, 36, 323-31.
Lillard, L. and Waite, L. (1995). 'Til death do us part: marital disruption and mortality American Journal of Sociology, 100, 1131-56.
Lin, K. K., Sandler, I.N., Ayers, T. S., Wolchik, S.A. & Luecken, L. J. (2004). Resilience in parentally bereaved children and adolescents seeking preventive services. Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology, 33(4), 673-683.
Lowe, M. E. & McClement, S. E. (2011). Spousal bereavement: The lived experience of young Canadian widows. OMEGA, 62(2), 127-148.
Lutzke, J. R., Ayers, T. S., Sandler, I.N. & Barr, A. (1997). Risk and interventions for theparentally bereaved child In S. A. Wolchik & I.N.Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of children’s cping with common life stressors: Linking theory , research, and intervention (pp. 215-243). New York: Plenum
Mallan, L. B. (1975). Young widows and their children: A Social comparative report.
Mannan A. (2001). Widowhood and poverty: well being and survival in rural Bangladesh.
Dhaka: Grameen Trust.
Martikainen, P. and Valkonen, T. (1998). Do education and income buffer the effects of death of spouse on mortality? Epidemiology, 9, 530-34
McGoldrick, M. & Walsh, F. (2004). A time to mourn: death and the family life cycle. Walsh
& M. McGoldrick (Eds.), Living beyond loss: death in the family (2nd ed.)(pp. 27-46), New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
McLaughlin, E. and Ritchie, J. (1994). Legacies of caring: the experiences and circumstances of ex-carers. Health and Social Care in the Community, 2, 241-53
Mitchell, R., Shaw, M. and Dorling, D. (2000). Inequalities in Life and Death: What if Britain were more equal?. Joseph Rowntree Foundation, Policy Press, Bristol.
Morgan, L. (1981). Economic change at mid-life widowhood: a longitudinal analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 43, 899-907
Morgan, L. A. (1986). The financial experience of widowed women: Evidence from the LRHS.
The Gerontologist, 26, 663-668
Munnell, A (2004). Why are so many older women poor? Center for Retirement Research.
Murdoch, M., Guarnaccia, C., Hayslip, B. & McKibbin, C. (1998). The contribution of small life events to the psychological distress of married and widowed older women. Journal of Women & Aging, 10, 3-22.
O’Bryant, S. & Morgan, L. (1989) Financial experience and well-being among mature widowed women. The Gerontologist
Pai, M., & Barrett, A. E. (2007). Long-term payoffs of work? Women's past involvement parents with school-age children. OMEGA--Journal of Death & Dying
Parkes, C. (1996). Bereavement: Studies of grief in adult life (3rd edition). Routledge, London.
Price, D. (2006). Gender and generational continuity: breadwinners, caregivers and pension provision in the UK. International Journal of Ageing and Later Life.
Price, D. (2007). Closing the gender gap in retirement income: what difference will recent UK pension reforms make?. Journal of Social policy, 36, 561-83.
Rodger, M. L., Sherwood, P., O’Connor & M., Leslie, G. (2007). Living beyond the unanticipated sudden death of a partner: A phenomenological study. OMEGA.
Rolls, L. & Payne, S. A. (2007). Children and young people’s experiences of UK childhood bereavement services. Mortality.
Saldana, J. (2016). The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researcher (3rd Ed.). Sage Publication.
Saldinger, A., Porterfield, K. & Cain, A. C. (2004). Meeting the needs of parentally bereaved children: A framework for child-centered parenting. Psychiatry.
Sander et.al (2008). Parentally Bereaved Children's Grief: Self-System Beliefs as Mediators of the Relations between Grief and Stressors and Caregiver–Child Relationship Quality.
Death Studies.
Sander et.al (2008). Resilience Rather Than Recovery: A Contextual Framework on Adaptation Following Bereavement. Death Studies.
Sandell Howard & M. Iams (1997Projecting Social Security earnings: past is prologue. Social Security Bulletin.
Sandell Howard & M. Iams (1998). Reducing women's poverty by shifting social security benefits from retired couples to widows. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management.
Scannell-Desch, E. A. (2005). Prebereavement and postbereavement struggles and triumphs of midlife widows. Journal of Hospice & Palliative Nursing.
Sevak, P. Weir, D. & Willis, R. (2003). The Economic Consequences of a Husband's Death.
Social Security Bulletin.
Shaffer, S. L. (1993). Young widows: Rebuilding identity and personal growth following spousal loss. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of San Francisco.
Shapiro, E. R. (1996). Family bereavement and cultural diversity: A social developmental perspective. Family Process.
Shaw, M., Davey Smith, G. and Dorling, D. (2005). Health inequalities and New Labour: how the promises compare with real progress British Medical Journal.
Silverman, P. & Worden, J. W. (1993). Children’s reactions to the death of a parent.
Stroebe, M., Hansson R., Schut, H. & Stroebe, W. (2008), Handbook of bereavement: Theory, research and intervention. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, K. R., & Zick, C. D. (1986). The incidence of poverty among the recently Disabled People’s Costs of Living: ‘More than you think’. Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York Publishing Services, York.
Smith, N. and Middleton, S. (2007). A Review of Poverty Dynamics Research in the UK.
Joseph Rowntree Foundation, York Publishing Services, York.
Stokes, J., Pennington, J., Monroe, B., Papadatou, D. & Reif, M. (1999). Developing services for bereaved children: A discussion of the theoretical and practical issues involved.
Stroebe, M. Schut, H. & Stroebe . (2007). Review Health outcomes of bereavement.
Tennan, R., Webster, S., Callanan, M., Maher, J. and O’Connor, W. (2007) Helping Older People Engage With Benefits and Services: An evaluation of the Partnership Fund.
Department for Work and Pensions Research Report No 441, Corporate Document Services, Leeds.
Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental.
United Nations Statement for International Widows Day (2014). Secretary-General's message
on International Widow's Day. Retrieved from:
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2014-06-23/secretary-generals-message- international-widows-day-scroll-down
Walter, T. (1996). A new model of grief: Bereavement and biography. Mortality.
Walsh, F. (2004). Spirituality, death, and loss. New York, NY: Norton Weaver, D. A. (2010). Widows and social security. Social Security Bulletin.
Weir, D. & Willis, R (2000). Prospects of Widow Poverty. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Willets, R. et. al (2004) Longevity in the 21st century. British Actuarial Journal
Wong, S. (2005). The Human Rights Act 1998 and the shared home: issues for cohabitants.
Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law, 27, 265-79.
Worden, J. W. (2009). Grief counseling and grief therapy: A handbook for the mental health practitioner (4th ed.). New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Worden, J. W., & Silverman, P. S. (1993). Grief and depression in newly widowed. New York:
Springer Publishing Company.
World Health Organization (1996). Measuring Quality of Life.
Wortman, C. B. & Lehman D. R. (1985). Reactions to victims of life crisis: Support attempts that fail. In I. G. Sarason & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research and applications (pp. 463-489). Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.
Zick, C. and Smith, K. (1986). Immediate and delayed effects of widowhood on poverty:
patterns from the 1970s, The Gerontologist.
Merriam Webster (2021). Retrieved from dated February 2, 2021:
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/married-
life#:~:text=(%CB%88m%C3%A6r%C9%AAd%20la%C9%AAf),which%20married%2 0life%20can%20bring
