ISSUES OF ORIGINALITY AND IMITATION IN ISLAMIC CALLIGRAPHY:
BETWEEN TRADITION AND CONTEMPORARY PRACTICE
By Nor Azlin Hamidon1, Nurul Huda Md Din2
1. Introduction
This paper is focusing on the issue of originality and imitation in the Islamic calligraphy artwork in Malaysia. It is undeniable that in the process of giving birth to a master of calligraphy, a new young calligrapher has to copy the scripts written by the great masters, practice on writing it over and over again until his or her writing achieves the exact or near similarity with the recognized scripts of great calligraphers. Therefore, the act of copying is a necessary process and is allowed in the tradition of Islamic calligraphy.
However, this has become an issue in the contemporary art due to the plagiarism and imitation.
The types of imitation (copy) and its intention also varies. A calligrapher may copy the masterpieces of calligraphy in order to increase personal skill of writing and in some instances, the imitation is done wholly by making copies. The technique of transferring the calligraphy and the advancement of technology in this millennium has become so sophisticated that making copies of art works and then transfering the calligraphy painting is not a big problem anymore.
In other instances, similarities in art works can be detected in their technique, style or method of writing, and shape of the words. There is also a question of ‘hiring’ and ‘sharing’, in which an art work is done by two or more persons. Another issue is the claim made personally (through signature) in the shared art works. All these issues will be discussed in this paper.
The samples chosen for this study are 110, produced between 1960’s and 2005. The main objective is to find out the imitation styles, and to discuss on the practices and acceptance of this issue in the contemporary world. The study will contribute in covering the issue from two perspectives: from Islamic view and the contemporary issues of individuality in art and copyright.
2. Imitation Styles 2.1 Full Imitation
As mentioned, full and exact imitation is allowed and practiced in Islamic calligraphy tradition. It is recognized as a process of making a masterscribe or a master of calligraphy.
As seen in plate 1, Nik Farhan Mustapha imitates an art work from a book entitled Muṣawwir Al-Khaṭ Al-‘Arabī (Naji, 1974). However, there is a slight difference in the diacritical marks. Even though the structures of the letters are similar, some features of the letters are different. This proves that the art work is done by using her own writing skill, for there is still an indication of individual style in her work of art. The work in the permanent collection of Islamic Center, Kuala Lumpur. Nik Farhan won a consolation prize in the contest of Islamic calligraphy in the National Manifestation of Islamic Calligraphy
competition in 1988. The contest is to judge the skill on the exactness and accuracy of the letters according to traditional rules. The criteria on other aspects such as originality and creativity perhaps are not too substantial. On the other hand, other samples, such as sample 1988.2 and 1988.3 by Yahya Khatib Yusop, and sample 1988.4 by Zulfikri Abdul Halim, have shown originality and creativity on their works. All of these samples are based on their own creativity and creation. No similar calligraphy has been found so far.
Other sample such as work created by Riaz Ahmad Jamil Ahmad (in the collection of National Art Gallery dated year 1991), could also be categorized as a full imitation of the calligraphy. The title Mohor Hitam Putih shows similarities to the image of a seal of the Royal Seals of Kelantan. The seal is dated back to 1322 A.H. (1904 C.E.), to Al-Muntaṣir Billāh Tengku Petra ibni al-Marhūm Sulṭān Ahmad Kelantān. The image is so small and because of the size, the tracing of the painting is so arduously done and the smaller parts like diacritical marks are missing. The image of the seal has been enlarged 1000% in scale (Plate 2) from its original picture. However, the imitation from the printed image of the seal could be vividly compared.
a)Khattat not known. Nājī Zain al-Dīn, (1974)
b) Nik Farhan Mustapha, Allāhu Waliyyu Al-Taufīq, 1988, size not available, ink on paper, Islamic Centre collection.
Plate 1. The exact imitation from Arabian khattat.
a) The seal of Al-Muntaṣir Billāh Tengku Petra ibni al-Marhūm Sulṭān Ahmad Kelantān dated 1322 A.H. (1904 C.E.), National Museum collection. (Abdul Halim Nasir, 1987) b) Riaz Ahmad Jamil Ahmad, Mohor Hitam Putih, 1991.1, 37 x 107 cm., woodprint, National Art Gallery collection (1992.010). The image has been enlarged 1000%.
Not every detail can be seen and traced from the original picture.
Plate 2. The partial imitation from Malay Royal seal.
In plate 3, Sulaiman Esa (Garden of Mystery IV,1992 and Garden of Mystery III,1996) shows exact and full imitation from Islamic calligraphy labeled as (a). The calligraphy is read as Alhamdulillāh and could be found in many books on Islamic calligraphy. The original calligrapher, however, is unknown. The imitation does not only occur in the selected sample, but other works of art as well by the researcher during this study. They had used painting technique to facilitate the process of limitation and not transferring of images.
This style has been distinctively used by Khatijah Sanusi and Sulaiman Esa since year 1992 onward. However, by doing so, two art works proves to have been printed erroneously wrong. Both works of art, represented by (b) and (c) in the plate 4 has produced illegible Islamic calligraphy. In the process of printing, one should be extra careful not to make mistake by printing the negative image instead of the positive. This has caused the word Alhamdulillah undecipherable, and by impression, conveying negative meaning as well.
From Islamic perspective, the works fall under the category of unethical for it bears the name of God Allāh which carries its sanctity in any art work represented.
This issue has been brought up in a seminar called Sidang Seni celebrating 50 years of National Art Gallery establishment in 2008 (Nor Azlin, 2008). One of the questions highlighted was the issue of whether the artist has mistakenly and subconsciously printed the sacred words of God in the wrong direction. If it is so, therefore, they should not be blamed. Another issue is if the words are consciously printed in such a way to present an
idea, the artists are considered as conveying the message via their own method and that should not be problematic. The artists are conscious in their execution of works and due responsible to any consequences later.
The work has been proven inaccurate and similarly to his other art works, of Sulaiman Esa repeatedly make the same mistake. The calligraphy written with the words Wa Lā Ghāliba Illa Allāh is printed in wrong direction or the wrong way around. The meaning is implying the negation of the word. Even though the words are not from al-Qur’ān, but are found in many reliefs of Islamic architecture such as at the Palace of Al-Hambra in Spain. (Nāji, 1974). The negation of the words comprehended from its meaning “and no other victors except for Allāh” leads to its negative meaning. These art works are from the series of Waiting for Godot, which according to Niranjan Rajah, represents naked woman as a symbol for the Western art that distracts from the remembrance of God. The Islamic calligraphy and the decorative elements, in turn, can be seen as representing both Islamic art and the state of grace brought by the realization of God. The statement, which has been brought up in the Sulaiman’s exhibition book called Al-Insyirāh proves that Niranjan’s interpretation on Sulaiman’s paintings was made under his own approval (Niranjan, 2001).
The calligraphy act as a symbol that represents the Islamic art and it should lead the viewer to the remembrance of God. However, it was unsuccessful due to the inversion of the printed word in the competition.
Nevertheless, the mistake has not been detected or perhaps due to the ignorance of the artist, the same design which was once wrong appeared again in his later art works created in 1998 and 2000, as shown in Plate 6. The different techniques used perhaps would explain more on the consciousness of the artist on the printed words that are chosen to represent Islamic art, its spirituality and sanctity.
a)Kūfī Murabba’ (squared Kufi), the calligrapher unknown (unknown calligrapher).
(Pameran Pertandingan Seni Khat Anjuran Pusat Kebudayaan Universiti Malaya, 1981) b) Sulaiman Esa, 1992, Garden of Mystery IV, 122 x 183 cm., mixed media.
c) Sulaiman Esa, 1996, Garden of Mystery III, 215 x 216 cm., mixed media.
Plate 3. Exact imitation using printing technique.
a) Original calligraphy
b) Sulaiman Esa, 1998, Garden of Certainty, 195 x 196 cm., mixed media.
c) Khatijah Sanusi, 1992.1, Siri September II, 126 x 180 cm., batik on textile.
Plate 4. Exact imitation using printing technique. Art work labeled as (b) and (c) are printed invertedly.
(a) b)
(a) The original calligraphy which inspires the artist. Calligrapher unknown (Nājī Zain al-Dīn, 1974).
(b) Inverted from the original calligraphy, making the art works incomprehensible.
(c) Sulaiman Esa, waiting for Godot I, etching, 55 x 39 cm., 1977, National Art Gallery Collection.
(d) Sulaiman Esa, waiting for Godot II, etching, 53 x 38.5 cm., 1977, artist collection.
(e) Sulaiman Esa, Between the Horns of Dilemma, etching, 43.5 x 29 cm., artist collection.
Plate 5. Islamic calligraphy Wa Lā Ghāliba Illa Allāh (in sample (a)) which means there is no winner but Allāh (written by unknown calligrapher). The calligraphy has been
invertedly printed by Sulaiman Esa in these three-art works done in 1970’s.
(a) The original calligraphy which inspires the artist. Calligrapher unknown, (Nājī, 1974)
(b) Sulaiman Esa, Last Supper I, acrylic, 65 x 50 cm., 1998, artist collection.
(c) Sulaiman Esa, Last Supper IV, digital print, 49 x 35 cm., 2000, artist collection.
(d) Sulaiman Esa, Last Supper V, mixed media, 45 x 60 cm., 2000, artist collection.
Plate 6. The calligraphy has been printed correctly by Sulaiman Esa in the art works done in 2000’s.
In sample 2000.4, imitation also occurs; however, the calligraphy had been partly cut off on the right side, as well as at the top and below (See plate 7). Sulaiman Esa, in his painting Beauty in Multiplicity III, had printed a verse from an ancient muṣhaf of al-Qur’ān, to represent a symbol of Islam. In the process, the Qur’anic verse was not completely comprehended by the artist; therefore, it was unintentionally printed in an incomplete form.
The implication had given an unforgivable effect because it had changed the verse of al- Qur’ān, as well as its meaning, as quoted from Sūrah Al-Isrā’ 17: 69.
Translated as:
Or do ye feel secure that He will not send you back a second time to sea and send you a heavy gale to drown you because of your ingratitude, so that ye find no helper therein against Us?
(Abdullah, 2000)
However, when the calligraphy in Sulaiman’s painting is referred, the meaning has turned out to be:
“….send you back…and send you….gale to drown you……ye find no….”
The words of Allah are the Mu’jizat for the Prophet Muhammad s.a.w. They are guaranteed to be preserved until the end of the world. Thus, having identified as a sacred word of Allah, the incomplete word of God which was ignored by the artist and the viewers is finally discovered (Nor Azlin, 2008).
Plate 7. Sample 2000.4, Sulaiman Esa, Beauty in Multiplicity III, 51 x 41 cm., mixed media, artist collection.
Figure 1. The text is incomplete as shown in (a), from sample 2000.4 by Sulaiman Esa. The letters and words of Al-Qur’ān on the right side of the calligraphy had been excluded.
The calligraphy has even been cut off at the first line, leaving merely the lower part of the calligraphy and making it almost impossible to read. The illustration below (b) indicates the words missing. (Source: Exhibition book Pertandingan Seni Khat Peringkat Kebangsaan Sempena Menyambut Abad Ke 15 Hijrah, Kuala Lumpur: Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia, 1980.)
The art work (Beauty in Multiplicity III) intentionally conveys the message of unity of the universal values, and in this case, the concept of ‘beauty’ that could be shared by many cultures and civilizations. Other cultures are represented each by their own significant signs:
the aborigines of their masks; the west through the representation of an art work Proportion of Human Figure by Leonardo da Vinci; the Chinese of their Feng Shui instrument called Ba Gua (an octagonal board with eight trigrams), and Islam of their arabesque and Qur’anic
verses. When the image of Islam is represented by an incomplete Qur’anic verse (which is considered as unethical in Islamic teaching), the image of Islam (is) subconsciously belittled by this work. The use of Qur’anic verses as image of Islam perhaps could be used wisely by knowing the rules and ethical conducts of Islam.
2.2 Imitation of Shape
Other than the full imitation, there are also partial imitations, such as imitation on shape in the composition. The art work by Wan Salleh Fathi Wan Isa has shown the similarity of merely shapes, even though totally different from the written calligraphy in terms of the quotations from al-Qur’ān, the type of calligraphy and style of writing. In plate 8, at the left side, the art work in Dīwānī script has been produced earlier than the one in the right. The star shape contains only basmalah and shaḥādah. As for Wan Salleh Fathi’s work, the Thuluth script uses the quotation from al-Qur’ān, arranged horizontally in a shape design. This design is well known in the history of Islamic calligraphy and repeatedly used by artists over the years but with different verses or quotation written with the star and crescent shape design.
Left: Calligrapher unknown, (Nājī, 1974)
Right: Wan Salleh Fathi Wan Isa, Surah Al-Dukhan: 53, 1976, 75 x 49 cm., ink on paper, Museum of Asian Art collection, University of Malaya.
Plate 8. Imitation of shape.
2.3 Imitation of Style
The art work with the style of thorough writing to fill up the space of the paper is called Muswaddah or the blackened pages. While the act of filling up the space is called Taswīd. Most of the time, the art work shows that the calligraphy is written up side down,
in order to practice writing parallel to the act to maximizing the usefulness of a paper. As shown in plate 9, the work by Qomaruddin Mansor shows two main layers of writing. The first layer is the background which use the taswīd style, while the second layer is done in normal style. Both layers used similar type of calligraphy, whereas the background layer is repeated in all directions. The words, therefore, could be read from right to left, upside to downwards and some of the words could only be read if the reader twist the paper ninety degrees each time. This is known as the act of taswīd. In this art work, the calligraphy of the first layer acts as the motif and decoration, to enhance the main calligraphy which is placed at the center of the picture plane. To further enhance the script, the background of the upper layer is coloured in black so as to highlight the calligraphy which is coloured in pink. The background of the first layer is dominated by green colour. The colours of calligraphy of the first layer is opaque and transparent, making the effect of a few layers of calligraphy. The calligraphy in blue colour is the most transparent, followed by the green colour, then red and followed by black. While the calligraphy in orange and yellow represents the calligraphy which should be read from the upper plane to lower plane, as well as opposite.
Abdul Ghani Othman’s work (see plate 10) can be categoried under the same style. It is even layered multiple times, with a special feature. The composition exposes the hidden structure for the Jawi letters, designed in outlines until the letters are nearly unseen. All the letters arranged at the centre of each square.
Plate 9. Islamic calligraphy by Qamaruddin Mansur, sample 2001.7 on the right side, Sūrah Al-Rahmān 55: 24, 45 x 61 cm., acrylic on canvas, Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia
collection, imitating the style of Taswīd, written by Ismā’īl Zuhdī (d. 1221 A.H. / 1906 C.E.), 24 x 27 cm., Istanbul (M.Ugur Derman, 2000).
Plate 10. Sample 2005.1 by Abdul Ghani Othman showing the imitation of style.
Zainurrahman Afandi’s work (sample 2005.4) too can be considered under the same style.
The overlapped technique for the calligraphy written diagonally is quite similar to the work created by Zādah Sayyid Muhammad Sa’īd Afandī from Istanbul. The type of calligraphy however, is different. Zādah used khaṭ Ta’līq while Zainurrahman used khaṭ Naskh. Similar to Qomaruddin Mansur, Zainurrahman also makes two layers of calligraphy, making the muswaddah as the background, thus, as a motif. While in the middle of the art work, khaṭ Diwānī Jalī was used. The contrast between the black colour of the calligraphy and beige coloured background of the upper layer had made the main calligraphy outstanding. By arranging the calligraphy in diagonal or slanting position, it created movements and psychological impact. The slanting lines and forms tend to influence the viewers. According to Heba Nayel Barakat (2004), it acts like a music notes dancing on papers and turning the plain paper to a dynamic rhythm of melodious verses.
Other than imitating the taswīd technique, another style has been discovered. Malaysian artists are also influenced by the style of muthannā (also called as ma’kūs and aynālī) - the art of mirror writing.
Two other works that also show some similarity in style are those written by Muhammad Qadir and Fawazul Khair Haji Ibrahim (sample 2003.3) as shown in plate 10. They are both using letter waw in their art works. However, they are different in terms of the method of producing their art work. Muhammad Qadir wrote his calligraphy, while Fawazul Khair painted with brush, enhancing the expressionist style such as the style of painting
calligraphy by Syed Ahmad Jamal (in Chairil Anwar) and Sharifah Zuriah Al-Jefri (in Al- Rahman Al-Rahim).
Left: Written by Zādah Sayyid Muhammad Sa’īd Afandī, Istanbul (M.Ugur Derman, 2000).
Right: Zainurrahman Afandi, Sūrah Al-Fātihah verse 6, 2005, 91 x 60 cm., acrylic on canvas, artist collection.
Plate 11. Another sample of imitation of style.
Plate 12. Art work on the top is written by Muhammad Shāfiq, 19th A.D. (Nājī Zain al-Dīn, 1974), while art work below is sample 1979.2 by Raja Azhar Idris.
Plate 13. Two art works with similar style by the repetition of letter “waw”. The top is written by khattat Muhammad Qādir, 1342H (Nājī Zain al-Dīn, 1974) while the bottom
art work is prepared by Fawazul Khair Haji Ibrahim (sample 2003.3).
2.4 Sharing and Hiring
Close examination of the works by Ahmad Zafuan bin Dato’ Embong, shows that he had used the earthen colours such as green, yellow and red for his composition. Orchid flowers formed the main motifs. The researcher is also attracted to his other works found at Handicraft Centre, Jalan Semarak. Both works had used the same tones of colours and the same technique that is hand-painted batik. The soft mixtures of colours flow at the upper plane of the art works, while the calligraphy which uses the same colours as the background looked like floating over the painting.
It is found that another work which has quite a similar style is now in the collection of the National Art Gallery. It is the work by Ahmad Nashidi, a Terengganu artist who participated in an exhibition called Ulek Rasa (Ulek Rasa, 2006) which exhibits merely art works by Terengganu artist. The close similarity can be seen in the selection of colours as well as the choice of motif. This drives the researcher to verify with Ahmad Zafuan of the authenticity of his work and his relation to Ahmad Nashidi Ismail. Ahmad Zafuan admitted that it was done by Ahmad Nashidi Ismail.
This raises the issue of originality, because from the Western point of view, any art work produced with contribution from other artist, either by hiring or other means, could not be claimed as a work of one person. This issue, on the other hand, is a usual practice in Islamic art tradition. For example, under the reign of Ibrahim Mirza (1564-1577) of Safavid period, he patronized the production of kitāb-khana by appointing a calligrapher named Rustām ‘Alī and his sons Muhib ‘Alī and ‘Ayshī. There are also painters appointed like Shaikh Muhammad from Sabzavar, ‘Ali Asghar Muṣawwir and ‘Abdullāh Mudhahhib (Minorsky, 1959; Nor Azlin, 2006) It is hard to find any great masters of calligraphy who are multitalented calligrapher as well as painters as Ibn Bawwāb and Yāqūt Al-Musta’ṣimī (Ahmad Riḍa, 1986). They started as an artist, painter or architect before being a famous calligrapher. Their vast knowledge in art has made them an expert in calligraphy. They are able to initiate their own aesthetic and personal style of writing which is later recognized as an established style of writing.
Plate 14. Ahmad Nashidi’s art work below, while the art works at the left top and the right top are Ahmad Zafuan’s.
3. Conclusion
The analysis on originality of the art works has concluded that in the process of giving birth to a master of calligraphy, a new young calligrapher has to copy the scripts written by the great masters until his or her writing achieves the exact or near similarity with the recognized scripts of great calligraphers. Therefore, imitation is allowed in the Islamic calligraphy tradition. In some cases, the master calligraphers consented the immitation of his signature by his students, for example Yāqūt Al-Musta’ṣimī consented his students to use his signature in their works. It is a form of recognition that the students arrived at the standard of their master. The master’s signature is like a recognition mark for the art work and a conformation of a master in calligraphy.
In studying the contemporary works of Islamic calligraphy in the contemporary Malaysian art, the writer found out that there are various types of imitation. There are indeed calligraphers who copy the masterpieces of calligraphy in order to increase personal skill of writing. Nevertheless, there are also artist(s) who make copies through photostate machines and scanners, and then transfer the calligraphy on their paintings through manual printing techniques, or through computer printing. The copying process by photostate machine and computer apparels is an issue that is against the traditional practices, but yet it is also an indication of the advancement of technology that could assist artists who do not have the skill yet manage to produce beautiful calligraphy. Hence, the notion of
calligraphy as a reflection of standard to the calligrapher is not applicable in this case.
Therefore, the traditional method is still a better option because it does not only reflect on the physical beauty of the calligraphy, but also the beauty of the soul of the calligrapher.
Another issue is partaining to the issue of hiring and sharing in the execution of art work.
In certain cases, an art work is done by two or more persons. There are two approaches commonly practiced in Malaysia. One is practiced by an organizations who hire calligraphers and painters/illuminators to produce art works. The calligraphers and painters names are concealed for the purposes of lighting the name of the organization or institution. Such practices are found in Yayasan Restu, Institut Al-Qur’ān Terengganu and Yayasan Pembangunan Ekonomi Negeri Johor. This situation is uncommon but in the past, during the era of Islamic dynasties, patronage of the Islamic rulers is apparent in kitab- khanas. The calligraphers/painters were humble servants to their patrons.
Another issue is the claim made personally (through signature) in the shared art works. As in the patronage issue, the right and ownership of a work could not be brought up if the painter is hired by the calligrapher. The receive of payment is regarded as the release of the right. Furthermore, the ownership of an art work relies on those who creates the idea and the main concept of the work.
The limitation of this study is on the samples which are limited until the year 2005.
Therefore, it is fully recommended that further research can be made to samples produced after 2005 and beyond to get the better picture on the current state and acceptance on this issue.
4. Acknowledgements
For this research, the authors are indebted to the sponsorship in terms of scholarship for continuing PhD studies, coming from University of Malaya in 2001 until 2005.
Nevertheless, the utmost gratitude for the supervisor for the research, Prof Dr Dzulhaimi Md Zain and all the artists involved in this study.
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