International Journal of Education and Pedagogy (IJEAP) eISSN: 2682-8464 | Vol. 4 No. 4 [December 2022]
Journal website: http://myjms.mohe.gov.my/index.php/ijeap
READING AND MULTISENSORY COGNITIVE STIMULI: A REVIEW OF DYSLEXIA READING PERFORMANCE
ASSSESSMENT
Wan Nor Fatihah W. Mahmod1*, Gogulasanti K. Ganesan2, Norashiken Othman3 and Ummi Noor Nazahiah Abdullah4
1 2 3 4 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Tehnology, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Perlis, MALAYSIA
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Article Information:
Article history:
Received date : 10 December 2022 Revised date : 15 December 2022 Accepted date : 16 December 2022 Published date : 19 December 2022
To cite this document:
W. Mahmod, W. N. F., Ganesan, G. K., Othman, N., & Abdullah, U. N. N. (2022).
READING AND MULTISENSORY COGNITIVE STIMULI: A REVIEW OF DYSLEXIA READING
PERFORMANCE ASSSESSMENT.
International Journal of Education and Pedagogy, 4(4), 99-109.
Abstract: Dyslexia is a language-based, neurobiological learning disorder that impairs the development of an individual’s spelling skills and accuracy and fluency when reading. This paper’s main purpose is to investigate the relationships between multisensory integration and measures of reading ability in dyslexic individuals. It also reviews a systematic literature review were conducted by dividing the process into three main phases: planning, conducting the review to obtain the result. The journal and paper were both taken from an online database such as Science Direct, Research Gate and Google Scholar which were published between 2011 and 2021. This paper looks into the most recent research on reading performance and dyslexia difficulties. In addition to examining the reading pattern and performance of dyslexics, this study was expected to offer first-hand information on Assessment Battery for dyslexia.
Keywords: Dyslexia, Reading Performance, Assessment Battery.
1. Introduction
Dyslexia is a language-based, neurobiological learning disorder that impairs the development of an individual’s spelling skills and accuracy and fluency when reading (Smirni et al., 2020). Due to weakness in the phonological aspect of language, individuals who are dyslexic have problems communicating spoken language with the printed word (Louleli et al., 2020). Reading compression and vocabulary improvement can be impacted by problems correctly and fluently decoding words.
Spelling mistakes might affect how written information is created. Poor academic performance, low motivation, and self-esteem can all affect dyslexia. It can occur at any level of intellectual ability and is not a sign of insanity, laziness, or poor vision (Roitsch & Watson, 2019).
Reading is a necessary talent, and being able to read well in a range of situations is likely to boost one’s self-assurance, social development, and employment prospects (Elaheh Akbari, Abbas Ebadi, Mohammad Kamali, Yoones Amiri Shavaki, 2019). On the other hand, individual with dyslexia frequently experience reading challenges throughout Malaysia’s varied education systems. Numerous training programs have been created to enhance the ability to learn to read utilizing auditory and visual cues (Anis et al., 2018).
Reading is a necessary skill and the ability to read throughout various contexts effectively likely to improve self-confidence and social progress to improve social functioning (Huang et al., 2020).
Besides, according International Dyslexia Association (IDA) (The International Dyslexia Organisation, 2019), dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. Students with dyslexia have difficulty with processing and manipulating the sound in a spoken language (Novembli & Azizah, 2019). This is related to the ability to read words accurately and fluently. They will also have difficulty with spelling. Therefore, students with dyslexia will have problem to improve self-confidence and social progress to improve social functioning in daily life when they have to face the trouble with reading, writing and spelling (Hulme & Snowling, 2016).
In our everyday lives, there are continually bombarded with information from all sensory modalities.
There must process this multisensory information correctly and effectively if there are to operate within and learn from our environment. Multisensory integration refers to mechanisms used by humans to respond to convergent information from many sensory modalities (Murray et al., 2016).
Psychologists have traditionally used physical analogies such as “cognitive load”, “processing load”,
“effort” to define mental states during problem solving (Beatty & Lucero-Wagoner, 2000; Paas &
Van Merriënboer, 1994). Cognitive ergonomics (Branaghan, 2021) is the scientific study, evaluation, and design of activities, jobs, products, environments, and systems, as well as the interaction of individuals with their cognitive capacities.
In addition, a test battery (Ronconi et al., 2020) is a group, series, or set of several tests designed to be administered as a unit in order to obtain a comprehensive assessment of a particular factor or phenomenon.
2. Literature Review
Literature review will analyse general existing research papers in relation to reading performance of individuals with Dyslexia in order to identify research gaps in the related study area. The aim of this research is improving reading performance among individuals of dyslexia.
2.1 Systematic Literature Review
Systematic Literature Review (SLR) is a method of analysis, recognizing, and understanding all research related to certain research questions, subjects, or new phenomena (Novembli & Azizah, 2019). Besides, a systematic review is an approach that located existing research, chooses and assesses contributions, analyses and synthesizes data, and publishes the evidence in such a way that reasonably clear findings about what is and is not known may be formed (Denyer, D., & Tranfield, 2009).The SLR stages were carried out namely searching electronic database in the ScienceDirect, Google Scholar and Mendeley to find studies published between 2011 and 2021. Keywords or term used in the search “Dyslexia”, “Cognitive Ergonomic Assessment”, “Assessment Battery”,
“Cognitive Load and Human Performance” and “Statistical Analysis”, The initial search resulted in 142 articles that has been found in related issues. Therefore, this research study the previous research studies by using systematic literature review framework to identify research gaps.
Figure 1 shown the systematic literature review framework that have three phase which have planning, conducting and reporting the review. First phase was identifying the need of review. The research questions can have defined from the current research problem in this research. Based on that, it can identify the objective in this research and find the journal or article that related previous study.
Next, second phase was conducting the review. There have three steps in this phase which were research identification, primary research selection and data synthesis. The third phase was review protocol development that be through the inclusion and exclusion keyword criteria, data extension and journal selection.
Figure 1: Systematic Literature Framework 2.2 Individual with Dyslexia
The neurodevelopmental disorder known as dyslexia is a specific learning disability (SLD) with reading impairment. Because they have poor decoding and spelling skills, people with SLD have trouble identifying words precisely and clearly. Dyslexia has been identified as the most prevalent learning disability in today's society, accounting for up to 60% of the population with learning disabilities overall (Anis et al., 2018).
The term dyslexia, which was originally used to refer to "word blindness," has Greek roots and means, having impaired (days) word (lexi from lexicon) and the suffix (ia). Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a syndrome that affects people who struggle with reading, decoding, and spelling on a word level;
spelling tends to be the most enduring difficulty.(Roitsch & Watson, 2019). Besides, DD is a neurodevelopmental disease that is characterized by reading issues such as inaccurate or laborious word reading, poor decoding, and subpar skills (Lin et al., 2020). In addition, In addition, it also known as specific learning ability, characterised by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition, and by poor spelling and decoding abilities, in spite of having average intelligence (Calet et al., 2019).
2.3 Problem Statement
Developmental of dyslexia are characterized by difficulties and the problem by students with Dyslexia. It is also identified that reading difficulties deficit occur in learning processes consisting visual perception and kinetic perception cues. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder by deficits in social, communicative and cognitive skills. However, this trend has been criticized by researchers, because the theoretical philosophy was relatively weak, and it was not grounded on scientific based evidence instead it was meant to see only virtual behavior. Unfortunately, these is unknown medical alternative to reduce the severity of cognitive processing delay in Dyslexia disorder is due to physical and cognitive workload. To bridge these gaps, a focus on psychophysiological cues i.e., eye gaze;
pupil dilation pattern would be a substantial benefit in studying reading characteristic of Dyslexia disorders. Unfortunately, these is no established medicinal alternatives of reducing the severity of cognitive processing delay in Dyslexia individuals with reading problems.
3. Method
One method that may be used in this study to look into the research gaps in relevant topic field is the Systematic Literature Review (SLR). Planning, conducting, and reporting the review are the tress stages of the SLR framework, which are illustrated in Figure 1.
The purpose of this review was to identify the various reading ability profiles of dyslexia people and the efficacy of various intervention measures that have been documented in the literature. To find out the answers to the above queries, a review of the literature was done. Both the journal and the article were collected from online databases including Science Direct, Research Gate, and Google Scholar that contained works published between 2011 and 2021. This will analyse the latest recent advancement in evaluating reading performance in individuals who have dyslexia. Each article and journal’s content are summarized in this review article. These reviews do not specify the operational strategy that would permit data duplication or provide answers to certain research issues. The following keywords were used in the literature search: “Dyslexia”, “Dyslexia reading problem”, and
“Assessment Battery”
3.1 Materials
The main material used for this research is guided by the systematic framework. The systematic framework is shown as below. Articles published in between 2011 and 2021 in peer-reviewed publications that were indexed in the Science Direct, Research Gate, and Google Scholar databased that focused on description of reading abilities and intervention with people with Dyslexia met the inclusion criteria.
3.1.1 Samples
The researchers of the current review independently reviewed each study. They determined a few criteria for each study, including the quantity, diagnosis, age, and training of the reading comprehensive sub-processes, the type of intervention used, the implementer (such as a teacher, psychologist, or family member), and the context of the intervention (such as a school, home, or clinic). They also obtained a summary of the findings. Cases, where there were some discrepancies in data gathering, were explored and resolved by consensus after independent evaluations.
3.1.2 Procedures
Figure 2: Systematic Literature Review Framework
Number of studies found according to search criteria:
146
Number of studies focused specifically on both dyslexia and reading assessment:
90
Number of studies after deletion of duplicates:
70
Number of studies after exclusion of literature reviews:
30
Number of studies that characterize the reading abilities of dyslexia:
10
Number of studies that reported assessment intervention :
5
4. Results and Discussion
The review’s primary areas of attention were the assessment battery, reading performance, and dyslexia reading difficulties. The majority of studies utilised experimental designs to highlight the advantages and disadvantages, while some of them did not specify the kind of study design they performed. According to the various researchers, there are a few past studies that related to this research. Therefore, a summary table using five related past studies that has been refereed is show below. Table 1 show the Assessment and Methods used to evaluate Dyslexia Reading Performance.
Table 1: Assessment and Methods Used to Evaluate Dyslexia Reading Performance from Some of Review Papers
No Author Title Methodology / Methods
1
Yetta Kwailing
Wong
Perceptual expertise with Chinese characters predicts
Chinese reading performance among Hong Kong Chinese children with
developmental dyslexia (Wong et al., 2021)
i. Non-verbal IQ ii. Perceptual fluency
iii. Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) iv. Speeded Chinese Reading
v. Non-Speeded Chinese Reading vi. Phonological awareness vii. Morphological awareness
2 Seyedmorteza Nourbakhsh
The Effects of Multisensory Method and Cognitive Skills
Training on Perceptual Performance and Reading
Ability among Dyslexic Students in Tehran-Iran (Nourbakhsh et al., 2013)
i. Multisensory Method
ii. Reading and Dyslexic Test (RTD)
iii. Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (BVMGT) iv. Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF)
v. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
3 Elaheh Akbari
Developing a Persian test battery of prereading skills
for screening Preschool- aged children (Elaheh Akbari, Abbas Ebadi, Mohammad Kamali, Yoones Amiri Shavaki,
2019)
Test Battery i. Phonological awareness
ii. Phonological working memory (PWM) iii. Rapid Automatic Naming (RAN) iv. Vocabulary
v. Visual Perception vi. Motor Skills
4 Bernard A.J.
Jap.
Toward Identifying Dyslexia in Standard
Indonesia: The Development of a Reading
Assessment Battery(Jap, 2017)
Assessment Battery
i. Raven’s Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM)
ii. Orthographic Choice Task (OCT) iii. Writing to dictation
iv. Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) v. Phoneme deletion
vi. Verbal fluency
5 Sietske Van Viersen
High Reading Skills Mask Dyslexia in Gifted Children
(van Viersen et al., 2016)
Test Battery i. Phonological awareness (PA) ii. Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) iii. Verbal Short-Term Memory (VSTM) iv. Working Memory (WM)
6 Robin van Rijthoven
Response to Phonics Through Spelling Intervention in Children
with Dyslexia (van Rijthoven et al., 2021)
1. Outcome measures i. Pseudoword decoding
ii. Word decoding iii. Word spelling
2. Predictor measures i. Phonological awareness (PA)
ii. Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) iii. Verbal working memory
iv. Perceptual cognitive skill
3. Phonics through spelling intervention i. Grapheme phoneme correspondence (GPC) ii. The alphabetical principles in writing and
reading
iii. Rules and exceptions
Table 1 show the assessment and method used to evaluate Dyslexia Reading Performance. Yetta Kwailing Wong et al. (Wong et al., 2021) investigates the theory that developmental dyslexia result in a failure to acquire word perception skills while receiving a sufficient education. There looked at the connection between reading Chinese words and having perceptual experience with Chinese characters in a group of Hong Kong Chinese children who had been diagnosed with developmental dyslexia.
Seyedmorteza Nourbakhsh et al. (Nourbakhsh et al., 2013) investigated how dyslexic children’s performance and reading ability were affected by cognitive (cognitive skills training) and developmental (sensory-perceptual skills training) intervention that 60 dyslexic children participated in their research. Reading and Dyslexic Exam (RTD) screening test, Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (BVMGT) and Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) test were used to assess the success of the 16- session intervention.
The goal of their study, according to Elaheh Akbari et al.(Elaheh Akbari, Abbas Ebadi, Mohammad Kamali, Yoones Amiri Shavaki, 2019), was to create and implement a Persian prereading test battery for pre-schoolers based on the multidimensional reading perspective. 48 children who were usually developing and chosen at random performed the battery of tests.
In order to diagnose dyslexia in beginning readers, according to Bernard A. J. Jap et al. (Jap, 2017) a battery of tests for reading and reading-related abilities was created. Nine empirically motivated reading and reading-related tasks were included in the test battery for their study. These tasks assessed word reading, pseudoword reading, arithmetic, rapid automatized naming, phoneme deletion, forward and backward digit span, verbal fluency, orthographic choice (spelling) and writing.
Next, Sietske Van Viersen et al. (van Viersen et al., 2016)investigated how gifted children with dyslexia might be able to mask literacy problems and the role of possible compensatory mechanisms that consist of 121 Dutch primary school children that were divided into four groups which were typically developing (TD) children, children with dyslexia, gifted children with dyslexia. Measures of literacy (reading/spelling) and cognitive literacy and language skills such as phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN), verbal short-term memory (VSTM), working memory (WM), grammar and vocabulary were included of the testing battery (Cancer & Antonietti, 2018).
In addition, it has not yet been proven that the goal of improving the bidirectional links between phonology and orthography exists, according to Robin van Rijthoven et al.(van Rijthoven et al., 2021). In learning how to spell words, the process is reversed. The bidirectional relationship between phonological and orthographic representations serves as the foundation for both phonological and orthographic recording processes. Children with developmental dyslexia can take one of three tests to see how well they respond to a phonics through spelling intervention: outcome measures, predictor measures, and phonics through spelling intervention. The conclusion that integrating spelling and reading in one intervention was advantageous for the reading and spelling development of children with dyslexia is supported by the fact that Robin van Rijthoven et al. discovered favourable effects on both spelling and reading.
Overall, it can be said that no association was observe d between the method of measuring reading performance for people with dyslexia and reading performance in the existing research papers, which are related separately in each scope.
5. Conclusion
The problem statement identifies that the reading performance among individuals with dyslexia need to increase for help their learning abilities by achieve the objectives in the research. Furthermore, the limitation in this research is focus on reading performance of individuals with dyslexia.
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