SEAFDEC
Asian Aquaculture
Volume XXV Number 2 April - June 2003 ISSN 0115-4974
Endosulfan: a hidden menace
Relicardo M. Coloso, Ph.D.
S c i e n t i s t I I, S E A F D E C / A Q D r m c o l o s o @ a q d . s e a f d e c . o r g . p h
The use of pesticides in agriculture and human health has been successful in controlling pests and diseases. The application of the organochlorine pesticides such as DDT [ 1, 1, 1-trichloro-2-2-bis(parachlorophenyl)ethane] against the malaria mosquito and many other insect pests provided a cheap and effective control for most insect problems. The new pesticide technology also brought in other effective agents such as herbicides (for weeds), avicides (for birds), piscicides (for fish), and molluscicides (for snails) that contributed to the success of farming systems worldwide. But pesticide application has many problems such as the emergence of new pests, persistence in the environment, environmental contamination, and subsequent effect on non-target organisms including humans.
Endosulfan (hexachlorohexahydromethano-2, 4, 3-benzodioxathiepine-3- oxide), a cyclodiene pesticide, also commonly known as Thiodan™ in many countries and Benzoepin in Japan, has been used effectively in the production of fruits, grains, nuts, and vegetables since 1954. New reports say that endosulfan
The chemical structure o f endosulfan.
Endosulfan is highly toxic; it is either restricted, not allowed in ricefields, or banned in Southeast Asian
countries. Illegal trade and incorrect use (eg. to control golden apple snail in rice paddies) always pose added danger
page 2
ASEAN-SEAFDEC 5-YEAR PROGRAM Integrated Regional Aquaculture Project
IRAP activity launched
b y W G Yap a n d V T S u lit
After some delay due to various reasons the latest of which was the SARS outbreak, the Integrated Regional Aquaculture Project (IRAP) under the ASEAN-SEAFDEC Special 5-year Program had a soft launching with the first phase of the site visitation and survey con
ducted from 12 to 23 May 2003.
The initial countries covered were Indo
nesia, Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia. The SEAFDEC/AQD survey team consisted of these writers and three experts from the Thai
land’s Department of Fisheries (DOF) and one from AQD who joined the survey in different places depending on the expertise required. Ms.
Sunee Payomjamsri, Food Technologist from the DOF Fisheries Technological Development Division came on board for Jambi, Indonesia;
Mr. Som bhong S uw annatos, S enior Aquaculture Advisor of the DOF Fisheries F oreign A ffairs D ivision fo r B runei Darussalam; and for Malaysia Mr. Nareupon
page 10 Join our online
training survey page 5
Needing biz opportunities in fishfarming?
You’re invited to a 2-day seminar P 21
New collaborators, results of technology extension initiatives, new experts, other AQD news P 4
Lao PDR’s aquaculture industry p 14
Why is live food vital to the industry’s growth? Find out on p 24
www.seafdec.org.ph
is also used against snail pests in rice paddy ecosystems causing alarm among scientists and environmentalists regarding its impact on the surrounding aquatic ecosystem. Perhaps looking again into the use of endosulfan in enhancing agricultural production and its impact on the environment especially when it is used indiscrimi
nately would promote a delicate balance between the demand for higher food production on one extreme and a cleaner and safer environment on the other.
Endosulfan use in agriculture
The endosulfan preparation that is commercially available is a mixture of two chemical forms, α - and β-endosulfan. It is colored cream to brown, may be crystalline or in flakes, may be an amber liquid, and smells like turpentine. The commercially available product Thiodan 3 EC contains aromatic hydrocarbons (less than 37%), 1, 2, 4-trimethylbenzene (less than 19%), surfactant blend (less than 3.4%), xylene (less than 1.8%), cumene (less than 1.2%), ethyl benzene (less than 0.6%), and 1-butanol (less than 0.3%) aside from the active ingredient endosulfan (33.7%) (7).
Endosulfan is used as a pesticide in vegetables such as beans, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, eggplant, pepper, sprouts, spinach, squash, and tomato; row crops such as cotton, potato, sweet corn, and tobacco; fruit and nut trees such as apple, apricot, blueberry, nectarine, and peach; grains such as barley, oats, rice, rye, and wheat; and vines such as grape. It is effective against a variety of insects such as aphids, army cutworm, beetles, boll weevils, leafhoppers, leafminers, tree and twig borers, stink bugs, tobacco cutworm, and others (insecticide). It is also effective against mites and ticks (acaricide) and as a wood preservative.
Endosulfan is one of the top 40 pesticides imported into the Asia and Pacific region. Its consumption (4,680 metric tons of
active ingredient) in the region in 1995 was third only to DDT and monocrotophos, an organophosphorus insecticide (6,017 and 5,250 metric tons of active ingredient, re
spectively) (2). It is presently banned in In
donesia, Taiwan, and Singapore; not al
lowed in rice fields in Bangladesh. Indone
sia, Korea, and Thailand; and restricted or severely restricted in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Acute toxicity on humans and wildlife Endosulfan is highly toxic. The WHO clas
sifies endosulfan as a moderately hazard
ous (category II) pesticide while the US EPA classifies it as highly hazardous (category 1b). In humans, it is highly toxic if ingested orally, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin.
The FAO/WHO acceptable daily intake for endosulfan is only 0.000008 g per kg body weight (8 micrograms/kg of body weight per day). Endosulfan poisoning can result from eating contaminated food, drinking contami
nated water, breathing contaminated air and touching soil and other surfaces where endosulfan has been sprayed, smoking cigarettes made from contaminated tobacco, and working extensively in an industry using endosulfan. Poisoning results in convulsions, trem
ors, paralysis, and vomiting, all symptoms of disorder of the cen
tral nervous system. As a class, organochlorine pesticides alter both sodium and potassium levels in neurons, thus interfering with normal neurotransmission and triggering muscles to twitch invol
untarily. Furthermore, the other ingredients of the endosulfan for
mulation such as the aromatic hydrocarbons can produce severe pneumonitis and fatal pulmonary edema.
The toxicity of endosulfan varies according to the manner of exposure. In acute experiments, the lethal oral dose (LD50) to rats is 45 milligram/kg. It is less toxic by the dermal route with a der
mal LD50 to the rabbit of 256 milligram/kg. The lethal inhalation (LC50) in the rat is 87 m icrogram s/liter/4 hours. However, endosulfan is highly toxic to fish and other aquatic wildlife.
Endosulfan earned its notoriety for spectacular fish kills in the Rhine River in June, 1969. Endosulfan residues in the water reached 5 m icrogram s/liter in the German section and 0.7 microgram/liter in the Dutch section, values which were in the range of the acute lethal dose in fish of 1-10 micrograms/liter. Com
pounded by the high water temperature of 19 °C, fish kills oc
curred in both sections (3). Crustaceans and molluscs are less sensitive to endosulfan (acute LC50 value of 10-1600 microgram/
liter). However, some species of shrimp such as the adult grass shrimp Palaemonetes pugio may be just as sensitive as fish with LC50 value for endosulfan of 0.62 microgram/liter. Furthermore, endosulfan may preferentially affect the male shrimp while endosulfan-exposed females may produce embryos with delayed hatching time (4).
Environmental fate
Endosulfan enters the environment when it is sprayed on crops or when it is acci
dentally spilled into the soil or water. Af
ter spraying, it could reach far distances (spray drift) before it settles on crops, soil, or water. In the soil, it is attached to soil particles especially near dump sites where the pesticide may be inadvertently dis
posed of. It could then evaporate into the air or stay in the soil for several years be
fore degrading into endosulfan sulfate which is even more persistent than the par
ent compound. The time required for one- half of endosulfan concentration to decay (half-life or t1/2) in sandy loam is 60-800 days. The metabolite endosulfan sulfate is highly persistent (3). In farms regularly sprayed with the pesticide, a significant level of endosulfan sulfate is already present in the soil prior to spraying as residues from previous applications.
Lastly, endosulfan in the soil could reach surface water through runoff after a heavy rain (see figure on page 2). However, by staying bound into soil particles, the threat of endosulfan leaching into ground water is low.
Endosulfan does not readily dissolve in water. It forms an emulsion with water.
In surface water, it could evaporate into the air or be attached to soil particles that are either suspended in the water column or settled in the sediment. The small amount of dissolved endosulfan breaks down overtime. The half life or t of endosulfan in water and in fruits and veg
etables is about 3-7 days. However, de
spite its fast degradation in water, it can still persist for a long period when bound
to soil particles which later become a source of contamination.
For instance, contaminated sediment can significantly change the abundance of several groups of macroinvertebrates in freshwater (5). Endosulfan can also build up in aquatic organisms that live in endosulfan-contaminated water, the concentration of endosulfan in the body of the organism becoming higher than its concentra
tion in the surrounding water over time (see figure on this page).
Endosulfan is rapidly accumulated and concentrated from surround
ing w ater by freshw ater green algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitatum [Bioconcentration factor (BCF) of 2700 in algae exposed to 100 micrograms/liter for 16 hours] and the freshwater cladoceran Daphia magna (BCF of 3300 using the same expo
sure). Direct uptake of endosulfan from water is the major route for its bioconcentration by freshwater plankton (6).
Fish are a good biological indicator for pesticide pollution of aquatic ecosystems. Endosulfan residues have been reported in fish obtained from natural bodies of water near regions where there is widespread use of the pesticide for agricultural purposes. In Kolleru Lake in the Andra Pradesh region of India, extensive use of pesticides in surrounding farms have resulted in detectable lev
els of endosulfan in tissues of fish species like Channa striata and Catla catla as high as 77 micrograms/g (7). Endosulfan residues have also been detected in market fish samples in and around Cal
cutta, India (8). In Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon in Argentina, sig
nificant endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate levels were found in tissues and digestive tract of the freshw ater fish silverside Odontesthes bonariensis indicating recent and past endosulfan use
ENDOSULFAN ... from page 3
in this region (9). In two coastal ecosystems (Ensenada del Pabellon and Bahia de Santa Maria) in the Gulf of California, Mexico, con
sidered to be the biggest shrimp producers in the region, residues of endosulfan and other pesticides were detected in shrimps pre
sumably coming from surrounding farms. Pesticide use has largely been blamed for the slow growth, diverse pathologies, and low survival of shrimps in this region in recent years (10). Thus, the impact of endosulfan contamination of aquatic ecosystems on wild
life is presumably confined to regions with high pesticide use and does not appear to be widespread in the coastal environment. But with endosulfan having one of the highest hazard ratings among pesticides, ill effects on the living organisms in affected areas can be significant.
Chronic and sub-lethal effects
The chronic and sub-lethal effects of endosulfan contamination of aquatic biota is only beginning to become known due to recent advances in the laboratory tools used in the biomonitoring of aquatic pollutants. While lethal effects are observed immediately as tox
icity, chronic effects on organs and tissues of organisms are not readily apparent except when investigated in detail after toxicity or mortality in the population has already occurred. Since the di
gestive tract is the first organ of aquatic organisms that comes in contact with food- or water-borne pollutants and the liver is the site for storage, biotransformation, and excretion of endosulfan, characterization of the cellular and subcellular degenerative ef
fects is a sensitive tool for monitoring the sub-lethal effects of the pesticide. Other physiologic functions such as osmoregulation, reproduction, and molting in the case of crustaceans may also be adversely affected by sub-lethal concentrations present in the wa
ter, suspended solids, or sediment.
Degenerative changes occurring through time have been ob
served in the cellular and subcellular structures of the intestine and/or liver of fishes such as rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss, carp Cyprinus carpio, and mosquito fish Gambusia affinis exposed to endosulfan (11, 12, 13). Some of these toxic cellular effects have been observed at endosulfan concentrations as low as 0.01 microgram/liter similar to those measured in natural water bodies.
Endosulfan also promotes peroxidative damage on the lipids of the liver, kidney and the gills of the freshwater fish Channa punctatus Bloch exposed to 5 micrograms/liter endosulfan (14).
In the catfish Clarias batrachus, sub-lethal concentrations of endosulfan reduce the specific activity of liver malate dehydroge
nase, a key enzyme in energy metabolism (15). Endosulfan is also toxic to isolated adrenocortical cells of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss and possesses the potential to disrupt the normal process of adrenal steroid production in the species (16, 17). Endosulfan is also capable of altering the gonad structure in juvenile and adult zebrafish which presumably results from alterations in primordial germ cells of embryos (18).
In other vertebrates, endosulfan and other pesticides have been instrumental in the decline of several species of frogs (anuran am
phibians). Reduced cholinesterase activity, a key enzyme in the central nervous system function, in tadpoles Hyla regilla has been observed in areas with poor populations of these amphibians as in the case of those found near vast agricultural areas in the Sierra M ountains east of Central Valley, California. M easurable endosulfan and organophosphorus pesticide residues were seen in majority of sample frog populations (19).
In invertebrates, exposure of the prawn Macrobrachium malcolmsonii to sub-lethal concentrations of endosulfan ( 11-32 nanograms/liter) alter the cells of the hepatopancreas and cause swelling and necrosis of the gill lamellae. These disruptions likely affect the absorption, storage, and secretion of nutrients in the hepatopancreas; respiration and osmoregulation in the gills; and growth and survival of the prawn (20). In the fiddler crab Uca pugilator, endosulfan significantly inhibits chitobiase activity in the hepatopancreas which could slow down the normal molting process (21). Thus, sub-lethal concentrations of endosulfan dis
rupt the absorption, storage, and metabolism of nutrients in fish and crustaceans. Reproductive performance in fish and other ver
tebrates and osmoregulation in crustaceans are also adversely af
fected by low levels of the pesticide.
Chronic exposure to low levels of endosulfan has been shown to affect higher animals and humans. Endosulfan treatment de
creases testicular function in the rat (22). Residues of endosulfan are found in yolk or embryos of white leghorn hens treated with endosulfan. which suggests that exposure of the chick can occur as a consequence of maternal exposure to the pesticide (23). Fur
thermore, protein malnutrition in the rat makes it susceptible to intestinal tissue damage by endosulfan (24). Recent studies done in human cell lines have supported the finding that endosulfan is a xenoestrogen, an exogenous chemical that mimics the action of natural, endogenous estrogen, which can potentially disturb sex hormone action. Xenoestrogens are suspected of causing a host of human diseases including cancer. Endosulfan can act as both an estrogen agonist (mimics the function of the hormone) and an an
drogen antagonist (opposes the function of the hormone) and its effects can be amplified by the presence of other pesticides (25).
It has also been shown to activate the estrogen receptor in normal and cancerous cells of the smooth muscles of the uterus (26) and is genotoxic to human HepG2 cells in vitro by causing chromosomal damage (27). Endosulfan can also affect human immune function by inducing cell death or apoptosis in T-cells and thymocytes (28).
Lastly, endosulfan residues have been demonstrated in biological samples coming from people who have been exposed to the pesti
cide. Detectable and significant levels of endosulfan have been found in human milk (29), semen from normal males (30). cord blood samples taken after delivery (31) suggesting in utero expo
sure to pesticides, and fat samples from children living near farm
ing areas (32).
Incorrect use against snail pests in rice paddies
Endosulfan has been indiscriminately used as a molluscicide to control the golden apple snail Pomacea canaliculata in rice pad
dies in the Thai provinces of Pathum Thani, Suphan Buri, Nakorn
Pathom, Nonthaburi, and Chanchoengsao, where supposedly its use is disallowed. Although endosulfan is not recommended for use as a molluscicide, majority of the 234 rice farmers surveyed found it effective against the snail pests after 1-3 applications dur
ing the pre-planting or post-planting stages. Farmers had used endosulfan for 1 -5 years or more prior to the survey after favorable recommendations from the supplier and their neighbors. Spray
ing or splashing of the water-based emulsion was the preferred method of application. Farmers seldom drained the water from the rice paddies, but when they did, they usually drained the water 1-3 days after the first application into the next field, irrigation canal, or river. As expected, mortality in fish, snakes, and frogs were observed in the rice paddies and in irrigation canals. Those who applied the pesticide complained of headache, skin irritations, and nausea (33).
Although endosulfan degrades rapidly in water, significant residues in the water, soil, rice, and straw remain after application.
The biological effect of such residues depends on concentration.
Right after application, the concentration of the pesticide is high, which is very toxic to target and non-target organisms in the paddy.
In time, the pesticide is degraded, the concentration is diminished, and the apparent effects on aquatic organisms considerably reduced.
However, effects on water and soil microorganisms and plankton are usually overlooked and the sub-lethal effects on aquatic ani
mals are difficult to determine without more detailed and exten
sive investigations. With the more widespread adoption of the rice-fish farming system during the growing season for rice, con
cern about bioconcentration of endosulfan residues in the fish and its hazard to human health is warranted.
In experiments conducted to monitor endosulfan residues in the rice paddies after application, total endosulfan residues (sum of α -, β-endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate) as high as 342 micrograms/liter was observed right after application (day 1). At day 1 after the second application (at day 10), total residues in the water were as high as 44 micrograms/liter and at day 1 after the third application (at day 20), residues were as high as 56 micrograms/liter. At day 48 after the first application, total residues in the water was 3 micrograms/liter, which was still well within the LC50 for fish of 1-10 micrograms/liter, but way above sub- lethal concentrations known to affect some physiologic functions in aquatic animals. Residues of endosulfan in the soil at harvest were detectable at 130 micrograms/kg. Endosulfan residues were also detected in rice and straw ( 1 and 20 micrograms/kg, respec
tively), the CODEX MRL for rice and straw being 100 micrograms/
kg (34). How much endosulfan residue is in the fish coming from such a rice-fish farming system perhaps needs to be determined to ensure safety to human health.
While endosulfan application may be limited to the rice paddy, pesticide residues may be transported after the release of the paddy water to other aquatic ecosystems such as irrigation canals, creeks, streams, rivers and fishponds that receive their water supply from these rivers, and lakes. Pesticide residues will affect the resident aquatic organisms in these areas as well as predatory animals such as birds and even humans. Volatility of the pesticide especially
under hot and humid tropical conditions and subsequent transport by air and wind is difficult to assess (35).
Endosulfan residues in rivers near the paddy field areas in the Thai central plain were also monitored. Several water samples were obtained from Thachin river (from Suphan Buri to Nakorn Pathom), Chaophraya river (from Pathumthani to Nonthaburi), and Bangpakong river (from Chachengsao). Highest endosulfan residues were obtained in Thachin river (0.05-0.97 microgram/
liter), followed by Chaophraya river (0.05-0.29 microgram/liter), and then by Bangpakong river (0.01-0.24 microgram/liter) (36).
Although these concentrations did not exceed the LC50 value of endosulfan for fish of 1-10 microgram/liter and no fish kills have so far been observed, sub-lethal effects on non-target organisms are likely to occur as a result of these measurable levels of endosulfan. Residues of endosulfan in fish, crustaceans, and other aquatic commodities for human consumption coming from these rivers should also be determined.
Summary and conclusion
A clean and healthy environment is paramount to human exist
ence. While pesticide use has successfully sustained agricultural and food production in our lifetime as well as safeguarded human health by controlling insect pests, it has also caused many trag
edies including population declines in our wildlife, fatalities in workers exposed to pesticides in its manufacture and use, and the increasing incidence of dreaded human illnesses such as cancer. A delicate balance should be achieved to mitigate the adverse impact of pesticide use to the environment and at the same time ensuring short- and long-term agricultural productivity.
Endosulfan has been effectively used as a pesticide, but much evidence on its chronic and sub-lethal effects on humans and wild
life have been gathered in recent years. More research still needs to be done to determine its effects from long-term exposure at very low levels. Endosulfan is highly toxic to fish and other aquatic animals and, thus, not recommended for use in aquatic ecosys
tems. However, in some countries, it has been incorrectly used as a molluscicide in rice paddies, which could have an adverse im
pact on the rice-fish farming systems and on other surrounding aquatic ecosystems. It is clear that such practices should be stopped and users must strictly observe the recommended application meth
ods.
Agricultural productivity should be achieved with much less pesticide by using integrated pest management programs which make use of biological, cultural, and physical control agents and lower doses of safer pesticides on a need only basis. The benefits of biotechnology should also be used to develop more effective and safer products and techniques. This is a valid approach and one that will require a unified and concerted effort among suppli
ers and users of pesticides in order to ensure that resources are used to our best advantage with minimal risk.
Acknowledgment
The author is grateful to Nelson Golez for the illustrations, Ma. Teresa de Castro-Mallare for critical comments, and Marilyn Surtida for technical editing of the manuscript. next page for reference list
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1 8 W ille y JB , K ro n e P H . 2 0 0 1 . E ffe c ts o f e n d o su lfa n a n d n o n y lp h e n o l on th e p rim o rd ia l g e rm c e ll p o p u la tio n in p re -la rv a l z e b ra fis h e m b ry o s. A q u a t. T o x ic o l. 2 0 0 1 . 54: 113-123
19 S p a rlin g D W , F e lle rs G M , M c C o n n e ll L L . 2 0 0 1 . P e stic id e s a n d a m p h ib ia n p o p u la tio n d e c lin e s in C a lifo rn ia , U S A . E n v iro n . T o x ic o l.
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2 0 S a ra v a n a B h a v a n P, G e ra ld in e P. 2 0 0 0 . H is to p a th o lo g y o f th e p a n c re a s a n d g ills o f th e p ra w n M a c r o b r a c h iu m m a lc o lm s o n ii e x p o s e d to e n d o su lfa n . A q u a tic T o x ic o l. 5 0: 3 3 1 -3 3 9
21 Z o u E, F in g e rm a n M . 1999. E ffe c ts o f e s tro g e n ic a g e n ts o n c h ito b ia s e a c tiv ity in th e e p id e rm is a n d h e p a to p a n c re a s o f th e fid d le r c ra b , Uc a p u g ila to r . E c o to x ic o l. E n v iro n . S af. 4 2 : 1 8 5 -1 9 0
2 2 C h itra K C , L a tc h o u m y c a n d a n e C , M a th u r PP. 1999. C h ro n ic e ffe c t o f e n d o s u lfa n o n th e te s tic u la r fu n c tio n s o f th e rat. A s ia n J . A n d ro l.
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2 3 B a rg a r TA , S c o tt G I, C o b b GP. 2 0 0 1 . U p ta k e a n d d istrib u tio n o f th re e P C B c o n g e n e rs a n d e n d o s u lfa n b y d e v e lo p in g w h ite le g h o rn c h ic k e n e m b ry o s (G a llu s d o m e s tic u s). A rc h . E n v iro n . C o n ta m . T o x ic o l. 4 1: 5 0 8 -5 1 4
2 4 L a b a n a S, B a n sa l R C , M a h m o o d A . 2 0 0 1 . E ffe c ts o f e n d o s u lfa n o n in te s tin a l f u n c tio n s in p ro te in - m a ln o u r is h e d ra t. In d ia n J. E x p . B io l. 39: 1017-1021
2 5 R a u n A n d e rs e n H , V in g g a a rd A M , H o j R a s m u s s e n T, G je rm a n d se n IM , C e c ilie -B o n e fe ld -J o rg e n s e n E. 2 0 0 2 . E ffe c ts o f c u rre n tly u se d p e s t i c i d e s in a s s a y s f o r e s t r o g e n e c i t y , a n d r o g e n e c i t y , a n d a ro m a ta s e a c tiv ity in v itro . T o x ic o l. A p p l. P h a rm a c o l. 179: 1-12 2 6 H u n te r D S , H o d g e s L C , V o n ie r P M , F u c h s-Y o u n g R , G o tta rd is M M ,
W a lk e r C L . 1999. E stro g e n re c e p to r a c tiv a tio n v ia a c tiv a tio n fu n c tio n 2 p re d ic ts a g o n is m o f x e n o e s tro g e n s in n o rm a l a n d n e o p la s tic c e lls o f th e u te rin e m y o m e triu m . C a n c e r R e s. 59: 3 0 9 0 -3 0 9 9 2 7 L u Y. M o rim o to K , T a k e sh ita T, T a k e u c h i T, S a ito T. 2 0 0 0 . G e n o to x ic
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2 8 K a n n a n K , H o lc o m b e R F, J a in S K , A lv a re z -H e rn a n d e z X , C h e rv e n a k R , W o lfe R E , G la ss J. 2 0 0 0 . E v id e n c e fo r th e in d u c tio n o f a p o p to s is b y e n d o su lfa n in a h u m a n T-cell le u k e m ic line. M o l. C e ll. B io c h e m . 2 05: 5 3 -6 6
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3 3 P u riv iro jk u l W, A ra y a ru n g s a rit L . 2 0 0 1 . S u rv e y o n th e u se o f e n d o su lfa n fo r g o ld e n a p p le sn a il c o n tro l in fa rm e r fie ld s o f C e n tra l P la in . P ro c e e d in g s fro m th e R ic e R e s e a rc h In stitu te , D e p a rtm e n t o f A g ric u ltu re , M e e tin g N o . 5, N o v e m b e r 2 1 -2 3 , B a n g k o k , T h a ila n d . p
1 19-128
3 4 S u v a p a rp R , C h a w e n g s ri V, T a y a p u tc h N , C h e r n c h a iv a c h ir a k u l A , Y o k y o n g s a k u l N , S itc h a w a t T, D o ic h u a n n g a m K . 2 0 0 1 . D is s ip a
page 20
P 100/liter aerated
P 100/test tube unaerated in liquid or solid media
Rotifer (Brachionus) P 100/million
Media/nutrients
P 1, 170/set for F-medium - for Isochrysis, Skeletonema, and Chaetoceros
P700/liter for Conway medium - for Nannochlorum, Tetraselmis, Nannochloropsis oculata
P200/set for TMRL medium - for bigger cultures of any species
Future activities
No doubt in the future, live food would become a new mar
ket niche along with the other profit-making production com
ponents of aquaculture. AQD has never been ready for this than now. The present microalgal collection, considered basic for any growing live food laboratory, has constantly been growing.
Indeed, indigenous live food has always been used by traditional aquaculture practitioners but have never been systematically stud
ied.
Taxonomic studies have to confirm the species studied, cul
ture techniques have to be established for newly isolated species and strains, ecological studies such as population dynamics and determination of environmental factors as well as the nutritive value
have to be investigated. These are just
a few of the many things that need to be done. A
bioreactor or fermentor has to be acquired and harvest and stor
age techniques established. Screening and extraction of bioactive compounds with nutritive and pharmaceutical values are possi
bilities for the live food industry. - MBS
Endosulfan: a hidden menace by rm coloso
ENDOSULFAN ... from page 18
tio n o f e n d o s u lf a n in ric e fie ld s. P r o c e e d in g s fro m th e R ic e R e s e a rc h In s ti
tu te , D e p a rtm e n t o f A g ric u ltu re . M e e t
in g N o . 5 , N o v e m b e r 2l - 2 3 , 2 0 0 1, B a n g k o k . T h a ila n d , p 1 2 9 -1 3 9 3 5 M a g a l l o n a E D . 1995. Im p a c t o f p e stic id e s
u s e d in lo w la n d ric e p r o d u c tio n . S e le c te d P a p e rs o n P e stic id e M a n a g e m e n t a n d R e g u la tio n in th e P h ilip p in e s (E D M a g a llo n a , A C S u m a ld e , A C R o la , P M a c Q u a r r i e ) , D a l h o u s i e U n iv e r s ity . C a n a d a a n d U n iv e r s ity o f th e P h ilip p in e s at L o s B a n o s, P h ilip p in e s, p 1-45 3 6 C h a ts a n tip ra p a P, H a ru th a ith a n a s a n P. 2 0 0 1 .
D is trib u tio n o f e n d o s u lfa n re sid u e s in th e riv e rs a lo n g p a d d y fie ld a re a . P ro c e e d in g s fro m th e R ic e R e se a rc h In s ti
tu te . D e p a rtm e n t o f A g ric u ltu re , M e e t
in g N o . 5 , N o v e m b e r 2 1 - 2 3 . 2 0 0 1 , B a n g k o k . T h a ila n d , p 14 1 -1 4 8 ###
Disease Control in Fish and Shrimp Aquaculture in SEA - Diagnosis and Husbandry Techniques. 215
p a g e s , e d ite d by Y a su o In u i an d E rlin d a C r u z -L a c ie rd a . T h is v o lu m e c o n ta in s the 14 p a p e rs
presented at a seminar-workshop held December 4-6, 2001 that was organized by SEAFDEC and the Office Interna
tional des Epizootics. For a copy, contact Dr Erlinda Cruz-Lacierda at eclacier@
aqd.seafdec.org.ph or fax (63-33) 5118709, 3351008.
Nutrition in Tropical Aquaculture is edited by SEAFDEC/
AQD scientists Dr.
Oseni Millamena, Dr.
Relicardo Coloso, and Dr. Felicitas Pascual.
The textbook is the second title released from AQD's textbook writing program.
