Yet ethnographic work written by Filipinos on coastal fishing communities in the Philippines is surprisingly sparse. Another reason for the marginalization of maritime-related literature was Philippine anthropology's initial focus on "non-Christian peoples". With the exception of Bajau, in the ethnographic works of H. Later, in the course of editing for brevity, ethnographic descriptions tend to be cropped from papers.
In a similar way, some good student contributions could be discovered in the library of the UP Museum of Anthropology. The survey was conducted on a stratified random sample (based on the occupation of the household head) of the population in eight barangay locations along the bay.
Indigenous Coastal Resource Management
In 1987, his native familiarity with the language made him a logical choice to lead the ethnographic research component of the "Legal and Institutional" study for the first CRMP in the Lingayen Gulf led by fellow Pangasinense Elmer Ferrer, of the Institute of Social Work UP. and Community Development (ISWCD). The project employed anthropology graduates from the first three pioneering cohorts of the one-semester UP anthropology field school (including the authors of this chapter) as research assistants for the project. Together with archaeologist Israel Cabanilla, Bailen simultaneously directed the UP Field School of Anthropology in Sual, Pangasinan.
However, the findings were consigned to the dustbin when Bailen quit the research project immediately after field school. In addition to realizing their continued adaptive significance as fishing technologies and forms of social organization, the authors were struck by the complexity of the “equity systems” in these long-standing technologies. Such internally defined informal nature of fishing regulations made the system flexible to shifts in the environmental, social, economic and political conditions affecting fishing activities, until the leasing of this particular fishing plot was finally stopped in the mid-1990s (Rodriguez 1997 ). .
By the 1990s, there was growing anthropological and environmental interest in biodiversity conservation and "indigenous resource management" in the Philippines. This was prompted by a number of factors such as the promulgation of Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the Philippines' ratification of the subsequent Convention on Biodiversity, and the availability of funds for research and conservation efforts. The review publication entitled Consulting the Spirits, Working with Nature, Sharing with Others: Indigenous Resource Management in the Philippines, edited by Ponciano Bennagen and Maria Luisa Lucas-Fernan (1996), cited studies on the Philippines, in which only three ethnographic cases for coastal resources named.
These were Eric Casino's (1967) study on the ethnoecology of Jama Mapun, National Museum researcher Nicolas Cuadra's article on fishing rituals in a Visayan society (1992) published in a Japanese journal not readily available in the Philippines, and Maria Mangahas' unpublished MA thesis at UP on the mataw fishermen of Batanes (Mangahas 1994).
Cynthia Zayas and “Archipelagic Studies”
Aside from Sobritchea, another prominent figure among Filipino scholars was Alicia Magos of UP in the Visayas. Research articles by a Filipino author published in three volumes of VMAS touched on notions of fishing success and social relations (Veloro 1995); gender and economic change (Sobritchea 1994); the notion of "dangerous" (mari-it) sea-oriented practices, folklore and worldview (Magos fishing gear innovation (Cañete 2000);. Zayas also participated in the development of an interdisciplinary political research agenda for the UP, whose Board of Regents created the ARCOAST Network 27 .in August 1998 to incorporate "Archipelagic Studies and Ocean Policy" into the university.
Zayas expressed frustration at the lack of a stable curricular landscape in which to teach new maritime anthropology courses and the difficulty of finding faculty and other students interested in maritime culture. Trained as a practicing anthropologist during this period, Zayas has made herself equally at home in the Japanese academic tradition. Over the years, a significant amount of ethnographic descriptions of fisheries and coastal communities in the Philippines have actually been produced in Japan, by Japanese scholars, and written in Japanese (and are therefore generally inaccessible to Filipino scholars).
There is reason to suspect that more journal articles describing small-scale fisheries in the Philippines were published in Japan than in the Philippines. She said that she herself followed this tradition, but her fieldwork experience in the 1970s led her to the sea. Her films were confiscated by the New People's Army in the Cordillera in the northern Philippines, after which she decided to stop exploring the mountains.
Meanwhile, Zayas continues to conduct research in the Philippines and Japan, most recently looking into the material culture of sea-oriented peoples.
Expansion Beyond the Visayas
Paz Palis is an alumni of the first CRMP who completed her postgraduate studies at the Ateneo de Manila University. Wilfredo Torres, meanwhile, has produced historical and socially nuanced ethnographies of the Bajau in Sulu. Her findings replicate the pattern of migration involving Visayan and Muslim fishermen from other parts of Mindanao, stimulating innovation in local fishing technology and leading to reduced catches and rapid turnover of methods used.
The fishermen frame it in terms of the fish "getting smarter" so that fishermen's knowledge must adapt to fish learning (Mangahas. These fishermen's knowledge and physical "skills" were obtained from diving and dealing with the depths of the sea, rather than fishing from the surface, using the risky compressor technology Both Guieb and Turgo are well-known in the field of Philippine creative writing as award-winning authors and mass media practitioners.
Nevertheless, we expect that there is relevant knowledge production, especially where coastal universities offer anthropology and social science programs, or where there may be CRM or conservation projects. Such materials could be found in the archives of government agencies and non-governmental organizations. Visayas (see also Cichon n.d.), which offers degrees in fisheries and maritime affairs and where Zayas was located during the VMAS project in the 1990s, let alone colleges and universities in other coastal areas where research may tend toward the production of ethnographic knowledge. There are also other maritime themes that we have not explored in this article, such as seafaring and shipbuilding, that should also be included in the domain of Philippine maritime anthropology.
Some of the articles mentioned in this chapter are no longer in the "grey" zone as they have since been published in the official journal of UGAT Aghamtao (Roldan 2016; Mangahas 2016; Turgo 2017).
Conclusion
Archipelago-oriented” ethnographic research has gained late appreciation in the Philippines because, as Zayas notes, our American and European anthropological orientation is largely terrestrial-oriented compared to other academic spaces such as Japan, which by contrast has a long tradition of folklore research. got across the sea. Our experiences in the 1980s of being trained to do fieldwork in coastal communities, asked to read studies by Filipinos, trained to be sensitive and respectful of the knowledge gained from people we encounter, and even forced to express thoughts using Filipino used, corresponds to the deliberate. Involvement in addressing marine resource conservation and livelihood sustainability as well as documenting practices from declining heritage traditions has been instrumental in the gradual.
Current marine issues such as climate change and sustainability, combined with geopolitical tensions in the West Philippine Sea, will add impetus to developing interest in marine anthropology. As our survey of maritime anthropology in the Philippines suggests, despite its marginalization, this literature has an important theoretical and empirical contribution to the study. From the 1990s onwards, there have been efforts to promote systematic thinking about maritime or archipelagic anthropology in the face of otherwise "internal biased" anthropology in the Philippines.
By tracing ethnographic material from local authors, along with our own personal experiences, we hope to have heeded the call to fill a gaping gap in maritime anthropology that Ponciano Bennagen noticed decades ago. We take this as a much-needed step toward the indigenization of anthropology in the Philippines, an old but still unrealized call (Bennagen 1980). Students of anthropology in the Philippines are not usually guided by a review and reappraisal of their Philippine intellectual heritage and sometimes do not have access to original material, for example in the field of maritime anthropology.
In fact, we found it difficult to finish this paper as we have continued to dig out more material in the process of writing, knowing that there is still more.
Notes
Bennagen, Ponciano og Maria Luisa Lucas-Fernan, (red.) (1996) Consulting the Spirits, Working with Nature, Sharing with Others: Indigenous Resource Management in the Philippines. Bolunia, Mary Jane Louise (2013) Forbinder Butuan til det sydøstasiatiske emporium i det 10.-13. århundrede e.Kr. Ph.d.-afhandling, University of the Philippines Diliman. 2004) The Closing of the Frontier: A History of the Marine Fisheries of Southeast Asia ca. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.
Unpublished thesis, Department of Anthropology Field School, University of the Philippines Diliman. http://www.fisheriesbibliography.blogspot.com/; accessed September Social Relations in a Philippine Market: Self-Interest and Subjectivity. Hollnsteiner (1969) “Some recent trends in Philippine social anthropology”, Anthropologica 11(1): pp. 2009) Migrants to the Coasts: Livelihoods, Resource Management and Global Change in the Philippines. Tungpalan (1989) “Socio-cultural dynamics of blast fishing and sodium cyanide fishing in two fishing villages in the Lingayen Gulf area.” In Towards Sustainable Development of the Coastal Resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, G.T.
2010) "Ti Tablay ken Banua dagiti agtutubo a Tagbanua a Calamiano idiay Amianan a Palawan", Plaridel 7 (2): pp. 2014) “Dagiti Agsasalisal a Salaysay dagiti Lugar iti Malamaya nga Uni.”. “Ti Industria ti Ikan iti Aquarium iti Filipinas: Agturong iti Panagrang-ay Wenno Pannakadadael?” Hingco, da Therese Gladys ken Rebecca Rivera (1991). Iti Agturong iti Nagkaykaysa a Panagmanehar kadagiti Tropikal a Rekurso ti Baybay, L.M. Mednick, Melvin (1956) “Dagiti Pisces.” Idiay Filipinas (monograpia ti subkontraktor HRAF-16 Chicago-5), Fred Eggan, (ed.), New Haven: Ti File ti Lugar ti Relasion ti Tao. 1965) Panagkampo iti igid ti Danaw: Ti Sosial nga Organisasion ti maysa a Muslim-Filipino (Moro) a Tattao.
Panopio, Isabel and Ponciano Bennagen (1985) "The Status of Sociology and Anthropology in the Philippines." In Sociology and Social Anthropology in Asia and the Pacific. 2016) "Resource Sharing Amid Limited Access: The Case of the Barangen Concession in Bolinao, Pangasinan," AghamTao 25: pp. University of the Philippines (2014) "Professional Masters in Tropical Marine Ecosystem Management with Area of Specialization in Marine Protected Areas".
