UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES OPEN UNIVERSITY
MASTER OF ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES
TRISHA MAE N. LOPENA
FROM POLLUTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: A REVIEW OF INITIATIVES FOR THE PHILIPPINE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
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DR. CONSUELO DL. HABITO
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DR. CONSUELO DL. HABITO
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TRISHA MAE N. LOPENA
ABSTRACT
LOPENA, TRISHA MAE NARVACAN. Master of Environment and Natural Resources Management. Faculty of Management and Development Studies.
University of the Philippines Open University. June 2022. From Pollution to Sustainability: A Review of Initiatives for the Philippine Coastal Environment.
Special Problem Adviser: Prof. Consuelo Dl. Habito, Ph.D.
Plastic litter and pollution are detrimental to the coastal environment and have demonstrated its effects in various research studies on ecotoxicology, contamination, and wildlife loss. With studies suggesting that the Philippines is among the principal sources of mismanaged plastic litter, this study explores the environmental initiatives spearheaded by the civil society. Reviewing these initiatives help uncover the best practices and efficient approaches in working towards coastal environment problems, further illustrating the potential of active public participation in the implementation of various mitigating measures. Several initiatives and programs on combatting plastic litter, coastal pollution, and sustainable development were drawn from literature, such as brand audits, capacity building, collaborative environmental efforts, sustainable alternatives, and sustainability plans. Both immediate and long-term outturns are observed from cumulative actions and programs stemming from volunteer organizations and individuals alike albeit planning and implementing undergo a relatively short period. Several organizations, through their environmental advocacies, have helped establish, monitor, and maintain protected areas in different regions in the country.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION 8
Rationale 8
Objectives of the Study 10
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 12
Coastal Management 12
Plastic Litter 13
Sustainable Development 16
III. METHODOLOGY 18
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 20
Brand Audit 21
Capacity Building 26
Collaborative Environmental Efforts 28
Sustainable Alternatives 31
Sustainability Plan and Approach 33
V. RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION 36
VI. REFERENCES 42
List of Figures
Figure 1 Count of voluntary environmental initiatives reviewed per year of
implementation in the Philippines. 20
Figure 2
Count of plastics recorded from waste assessments and brand audits conducted by Break Free From Plastics from 2018 to 2022 in the Philippines.
22
Figure 3 Top plastic polluters based on the 2018 brand audit. 23 Figure 4 Top plastic polluters based on the 2019 brand audit. 24 Figure 5 Top plastic polluters based on the 2020 brand audit. 25 Figure 6 Top plastic polluters based on the 2021 brand audit. 25
I
INTRODUCTION
Plastic litter – in both its structural and disintegrated forms – has been observed in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Cox et al., 2019; Walker, 2021).
Marine and beach litter are largely composed of plastics (Coe & Rogers, 1997;
Derraik, 2002; Ryan et al., 2009). Studies suggest the Philippines is among the principal sources of mismanaged plastic litter polluting coastal environments (Galarpe et al., 2021). Jambeck et al. (2015) conducted a study estimating the plastic waste inputs from land to water systems and found the Philippines among the top countries with the highest estimated waste production in 2010, with waste generated of 0.5 kilograms per person per day (kg/ppd), 15% of which is plastic litter. Compared to other developing countries in Asia, Idris et al. (2004) observed that the Philippines produces more plastic wastes. Lebreton et al. (2017) claimed that the top 20 most polluting rivers are in Asia, citing Pasig River as the catchment contributing a significant amount of plastic inputs into the ocean, using the global river plastic inputs model. Findings from Esquinas et al. (2020) showed that the clean coast index (CCI) of Macajalar Bay in Cagayan de Oro reached an alarming value of 85, suggesting an extremely dirty coastal area. Esquinas et al. (2020) noted that residential cover and coastal settlements yielded higher concentrations of microplastics and plastic litter than any other sites in the area.
Rationale
Solid waste management has been implemented in the country through the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act, also known as the Republic Act
(RA) 9003 of 2001 (Republic Act No. 9003, 2001; Galarpe et al., 2021).
Correspondingly, ordinances stem from these policies that are also cascaded and implemented by the local government units (Idris et al., 2004; Galarpe et al., 2021), including mobilization of the community to adhere to waste segregation in their households and regular collection of segregated wastes. It is important to note that mandates can sometimes be limited to certain cities and areas (Galarpe et al., 2021). However, the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act primarily focuses on land waste and hardly covers waste pollution in water (Galarpe et al., 2021), especially since solid waste management is multidimensional and multidisciplinary (Guerrero et al., 2013).
Recently, a resolution was passed by 101 municipalities and 11 cities enjoining the National Solid Waste Management Commission (NSWMC) to publicly release an annual list of non-environmentally acceptable products and packaging, including single-use plastics, as required by the RA 9003 (Sierra, 2021). Most policies fail to recognize the hazards of waste products on aquatic ecosystems, and consequently fall short in institutionalizing conservation methods (Galarpe et al., 2021). This shortcoming is further aggravated by the lack of technical capabilities and resources for proper management of waste products (Galarpe, 2017), such as facilities and equipment designed for efficient segregation and recycling of waste, which is typically observed in developing countries. Galarpe et al. (2021) observed several factors impeding the ban on single-use plastics, such as the lack of scientific basis and experts consulted to build its sociopolitical framework, as well as the lack of infrastructural support and capacity-building of the community. Idris et al. (2004) infers that management protocols must include proper classification of waste along with
updated and efficient methods for recovery and recycling. With the global increase of plastic production, national and international undertakings began to rise, including the commitment of the United Nations (UN) to reduce plastic input onto ecosystems (Walker, 2021). Galarpe et al. (2021) observed that the creation of policies for regulating plastic waste and consumption intensified in 2019, following the rise in the number of related studies in the year prior.
However, the gap between the findings from local studies and the regulations suggest that policies have been based and influenced by the cosmopolitan (Galarpe et al., 2021).
Poor solid waste management is also attributed to population growth and rapid urbanization (Idris et al., 2004; Felisilda et al., 2018; Galarpe et al., 2021).
Human settlements along bodies of water, such as rivers and creeks, increase plastic litter input into the ocean (Felisilda et al, 2018). Idris et al. (2004) add that consumerism, resulting from rapid urbanization, influences the rate of production of packaging materials comprising paper and plastics.
Objectives of the Study
Acknowledging the importance of government-led environmental policies and legislative frameworks, this study intends to shed light on the initiatives spearheaded by the civil society and non-government units for the coastal environment. Specifically, the study aims to identify environmental initiatives spearheaded by nongovernment organizations for the Philippine coasts and coastal communities against plastic pollution and towards sustainable development.
There have been limited studies aggregating environmental initiatives and programs–against plastic pollution and for sustainability–carried out for the
protection of coastal zones and communities in the Philippines. With rampant plastic litter pollution in aquatic ecosystems and the limited studies on it, this study aims to raise awareness on the different movements and strategies carried out to help alleviate the negative effects of plastic litter while showcasing good practices and approaches in carrying out environmental initiatives. In addition, these initiatives can showcase good practices as well as areas that can be improved and tailored towards specific environmental conservation objectives, that can be used to plan and implement further movements, in pursuit of more engaging and efficient actions towards existing problems in the coastal areas.
II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Active public participation is notably one of the factors contributing to the success of environmental programs and initiatives (Guerrero et al., 2013;
Felisilda et al., 2018; Mohanty et al., 2021).
Coastal Management
Favorable outcomes from coastal management approaches have been inhibited by the lack of localized scientific information (Hastings et al., 2012).
Iwasaki (2021) notes that the fishing communities in Japan understand the relationship between the upstream and downstream, and that their knowledge of both the forest and the sea played an important role in sustaining tree- planting initiatives. Additionally, historical data on coastal forestry and fishing activities were well- integrated into their community-led initiatives, resulting in long-term commitment (Iwasaki, 2021).
A study on the restoration policies for coastal environments in Australia proved that policy implementation is often hampered by the intricacies of legislative frameworks and required administrative procedures (Shumway et al., 2021). Shumway et al. (2021) suggests that the coastal environment would benefit from having a more comprehensive regulatory framework, through policy reformulation, and sustained integration of coastal management programs to planning and development plans. Additionally, Shumway et al.
(2021) recommends streamlining administrative processes by adopting a one stop shop system, to improve the execution of regulations. Eger and Courtenay (2021) inquired into the governance gaps prevailing in crafting and implementing coastal and marine management initiatives and found verities
supporting the existence of the gaps. The gaps further exacerbate the difficulties in enforcing coastal and marine management initiatives, particularly in multisector engagement, undertaking of relevant authorities, adequacy of capacity to sustain initiatives, and integration of governance (Eger & Courtenay, 2021).
Plastic Litter
Studies on global coasts found that 70% of the top ten items collected are plastic food wrappers and containers (Wagner, 2018). Walker (2021) affirms that global plastic production amounted to 368 million metric tons (Mt), adding that this mass would double within 20 years. In aquatic ecosystems, plastic litter typically collapses into microplastics, which are hazardous to marine life with accidental ingestion and as plastics leach toxic substances in the water as they eventually disintegrate (Wagner, 2018). Plastic consumption and usage have become rampant throughout decades of innovation and discovery due to its low-cost accessibility, stability, and versatility (Singh et al., 2016). Production of synthetic polymer-based wares resulted from the high demand of plastic due to its properties – its strength, resistance, light weight, and cost-effectiveness (Irina et al., 2017). The problem of mismanaged plastic waste is further aggravated by the sachet economy widely used in the Philippines. The sachet economy is an economic practice of purchasing basic goods in smaller quantities in the form of a sachet, to maximize the coverage of limited financial resources daily (Lu et al., 2019; Walker, 2021)). The economically disadvantaged Filipinos habitually resort to the smaller packaging market because of its affordable price (Lu et al., 2019). The wide use of plastics was
first questioned when Rachel Carson (1962) introduced chemical pesticide hazards in a time where Americans gradually observed environmental problems, since plastics are made up of nonbiodegradable components–
ethylene and propylene from fossil hydrocarbons (Geyer et al., 2017). Plastic waste contamination, recycling complexities, and microplastic abundance–
whose size is inadequate for recycling– remain major reasons for the significantly low global recycling rate (Wagner, 2018). The final stage of the plastic waste cycle contributes to the exponential increase of wastes in landfills and the aquatic ecosystem (Geyer et al., 2017).
A Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives (GAIA) survey, conducted by Social Weather Stations (SWS), found that seven out of 10 Filipinos approve the ban on single-use plastics and six out of 10 Filipinos are willing to do business with establishments that sell refillable products and recyclable containers (Valerio, 2021).
Crociata et al. (2015) sought to understand the consumer’s perspective towards plastic usage by looking at behavioral predictors and found that environmental values, psychological predicament, and situational variables, such as demographic profile and socioeconomic factors, influenced perception towards waste management and recycling. Samdahl and Robertson (1989) claimed that higher educational attainment and socioeconomic status often translated to better reception and easier adoption of waste management.
However, findings from Valle et al. (2004) demonstrated that demographic profile and socioeconomic factors exhibited no significance to the public’s reception of waste management. The difference that exists between these studies exhorts further discussion and inquiry into the complex relationships among subjective factors and the problem of mismanaged waste (Crociata et al., 2015). The relationship of societal behavior and waste management are summarized into the following notions: (1) a range of diverse variables that include a variety of encapsulating variables are predictors of waste management behavior, (2) recycling awareness in households does not equate to active participation and practices among them, (3) additional research should be spearheaded to determine reliable recycler profiles, and (4) further studies must be conducted directed towards psychological, cultural, and social behavior towards perspectives in waste management and recycling (Crociata,
Agovino, & Saco, 2015). Varkey et al. (2021) presumes that the plastic producer and large-scale manufacturers should be held responsible for the problem on single-use plastics, rather than microenterprises and small-scale consumers.
However, reducing consumption is not the only solution to the problem of mismanaged waste as it requires a multidisciplinary approach from various stakeholders and sectors (Varkey et al. 2021). Extended producer responsibility (EPR) is an approach introduced to policy enforcement, which holds the producers liable for effectively recycling and reprocessing plastic litter (Wagner, 2018). EPR is characterized by shifting the physical and economical responsibility of plastic waste producers, rewarding producers for incorporating environmental considerations during plastic production (Rubio et al., 2018).
Active participation of the public and the policies’ stakeholders from different disciplines is fundamental to the execution of policies on waste management (Guerrero et al., 2013). The success of policies–designed to reduce the negative effects of daily operations and manage the source of the problem–rely heavily on the compliance of the community and the degree of engagement of its stakeholders. Felisilda et al. (2018) concluded that coastal communities are significantly aware of their environmental problems, yet their poor habitual practices hinder their capacity to mitigate the problems.
Sociodemographic configuration, such as legal, institutional, and economic linkages, also play an important role in sustaining management plans (Guerrero et al., 2013; Felisilda et al., 2018).
Sustainable Development
In September 2015, the UN launched the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), with Goal 14 as conservation and sustainability of water
resources (Walker, 2021). Among the 17 SDGs and 169 targets, only Goal 14 specifically included an indicator to combat plastic pollution globally in aiming to significantly reduce global marine pollution (Walker, 2021). However, Walker (2021) identified 12 SDGs that should have indicators for reducing plastic and microplastic pollution. As plastic pollution directly and indirectly affects a wide array of aspects, indicators must be integrated with other goals, such as addressing poverty, food security, equality, sustainable consumption, and production, among others Walker (2021).
In order to move closer to sustainable development, a balance among three dimensions–social progress, environmental resource protection, and economic progress–shall exist and be maintained now and for the future (Opoku, 2015). Alternatives to single-use plastics differ based on location and demographics (Varkey et al., 2021). Correspondingly, access to appropriate alternatives also depends on the consumers’ capacity to purchase and the locality’s compost system. Varkey et al. (2021), however, underscores the importance of educating both producers and consumers alike on the exigency of shifting to efficient and sustainable options. Additionally, the spread of misinformation on coastal environment pollution caused by plastics can be addressed by massive information and education campaigns (Varkey et al., 2021). With a paradigm shift in plastic production and consumption norms, education and awareness play pivotal roles in sustaining environmental management initiatives (Varkey et al., 2021). Gautam and Caetano (2017) suggest several sustainable raw material alternatives for cutlery and tableware, such as areca palm (Areca catechu), banana (Musa acuminata), coconut (Cocos nucifera), Maloo creeper (Bauhinia vahlii), and sal (Shorea robusta).
III
METHODOLOGY
With a comprehensive literature review, the study explored the various initiatives spearheaded by nongovernment organizations and independent individuals for the Philippine coasts and coastal communities through a scoping review (James et al., 2016) and associated meta-analysis (Mengist et al., 2019).
Both small and large-scale initiatives for coastal community capacity building, coastal pollution, and sustainability as well as the forged partnerships and joint collaborations of individuals, nongovernmental organizations, and private businesses were among the voluntary environmental programs reviewed in the study. Initiatives reviewed are based on both primary data, such as documentations and narratives of voluntary environmental programs sourced from individuals and organizations alike, and secondary data, such as writers’
coverage and other groups’ accounts of environmental activities.
The review was structured according to the various initiatives’ underlying objectives as well as the alignment of its implementation on the management and safekeeping of the coastal environment in the Philippines. Based on the literature reviewed, the initiatives studied were identified as (1) brand audit, (2) capacity building, (3) collaborative environmental efforts, (4) sustainable alternatives, and (5) sustainability plan and approach. These classifications are also linked to the tripartite dimensions of sustainability – economic, environmental, and social (Quaye et al., 2022). In the study, a combination of search strings and keywords were applied, namely: coastal management, coastal communities, plastic pollution, environmental initiatives, environmental
programs, and sustainable alternatives, to search within electronic databases, such as Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and EBSCOhost. Web platforms of nongovernmental organizations and individuals were also skimmed through for potential publicized reports and written accounts on environmental actions. Multiple iterative searches were performed to geographically confine results to localities of coastal communities in the Philippines. The results were assessed and further refined to consider the different environmental programs and collaborative innovations that were implemented in 2010 onwards, to allow for similarity and relevance to the 10 to 12-year environmental status quo globally as well as in the coastal environments of the Philippines.
IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Individuals, private sector, and nongovernmental organizations (NGO) are at the forefront of a wide array of voluntary environmental programs and initiatives. Several business companies partner with NGOs in both short- and long-term collaborations to promote various environmental advocacies and further the reach of these campaigns. Numerous protected areas and alternative livelihood opportunities were established through these voluntary environmental programs.
Figure 1. Count of voluntary environmental initiatives reviewed per year of implementation in the Philippines.
Brand Audit
Waste assessment shed light on the production, consumption, and the disposal of plastic materials (Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives, 2019).
Brand audits provide better understanding of the contributions of several corporations and producers on the global issue of plastic pollution (Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives, 2019). Additionally, waste assessment and brand audits demonstrate how the plastic producer industry shifted the responsibility of cleaning up the waste products to the consumers and the government, which further proves the inference that the producers should be held accountable for the entire life cycle of their products and packaging materials, such as the extended producer responsibility (EPR) (Global Alliance for Incinerator Alternatives, 2019). Waste assessment and brand audits were conducted in several sites in the Philippines, including coastal areas. Several global brand audit initiatives were spearheaded by members of the Break Free From Plastic (BFFP) movement, where volunteers collect, segregate, and record the litter gathered during a cleanup. Figure 2 illustrates the number of plastics collected and recorded from several waste assessment efforts and brand audits conducted from different sites in the Philippines from 2018 to 2022.
Figure 2. Count of plastics recorded from waste assessments and brand audits conducted by Break Free From Plastics from 2018 to 2022 in the Philippines.
In 2017, a total of 54,260 plastic waste items were collected from the beach along Manila Bay, with Nestlé, Unilever, and PT Torabika Mayora among the most common plastic brand names (Hallstrom, 2017; Break Free From Plastic, 2018). Figure 3 shows the top brands of polluters in 2018, Filipino food distributors and snacks manufacturers – JBC Food Corporation, Mondelez International, and Liwayway Holdings Company Limited – topped the list of corporate polluters (Break Free From Plastic, 2018). Non-recyclable plastics and multilayer plastic materials comprised the majority of the waste items, noting global brands, such as Mondelez International, Nestlé, PepsiCo, and Unilever as the primary manufacturers of which (Break Free From Plastic, 2018).
Figure 3. Top plastic polluters based on the 2018 brand audit.
Several waste assessment activities were organized across six cities and seven municipalities in the Philippines in 2019. Cooperative efforts among several groups, including the army reserve and divers’ group, conducted a brand audit in 2019 along the beaches of General Santos City together with the Break Free From Plastic (BFFP) movement (Garrote, 2019). Garrote (2019) reports that the group was able to collect 40 bags of trash from the coastal waters and 73 brand names were audited from the activity. Among the most numerous trashes collected were plastic beverage cups, fishing lines, and Coca-cola products (Garrote, 2019). Similarly, collective efforts of volunteers and residents from the municipality of Padada in Davao del Sur found Maxx candy, Wings detergent, and Hansel biscuit were the most common trash collected in the coastal environment (Garrote, 2019). Figure 4 represents the distribution of collected plastics and the top polluting brands.
Figure 4. Top plastic polluters based on the 2019 brand audit.
In 2020, member organizations of the BFFP movement in the Philippines, including EcoWaste Coalition, Greenpeace Philippines, Interfacing Development Interventions for Sustainability (IDIS), and Project Mariknows, conducted several brand audits in the Philippines. A total of 38,580 waste items were collected in 17 sites throughout the country (Break Free From Plastic, 2020). Approximately 98% of the waste items collected were non-recyclable plastics, such as single-use plastics, sachets, vinyl, and styrofoam (Break Free From Plastic, 2020). Universal Robina Corporation (16.46%), Nestle (15.99%), and Colgate-Palmolive (14.46%) were the most common brands among the collected plastic waste items as shown in Figure 5 (Break Free From Plastic, 2020). However, Figure 6 reveals results of the 2021 brand audit with the top polluter, Coca-cola Company, followed by the Universal Robina Corporation, and Nestlé (Break Free From Plastic, 2021; Greenpeace Philippines, 2021).
Figure 5. Top plastic polluters based on the 2020 brand audit.
Figure 6. Top plastic polluters based on the 2021 brand audit.
Capacity Building
In prospective and to broaden these environmental initiatives in the long term, capacity building – in the form of information, education, and communication, as well as training programs – are carried out by organizations and volunteers alike intending for a long–term and more efficient integration of these changes at the grassroots. Information campaigns and skill training aid knowledge transfer from the experts to the communities, raising the probability of perpetuating the environmentally conscious mindset within the community.
Save Philippine Seas (SPS) has organized several environmental initiatives through their projects, such as A-B-Seas, Sea and Earth Advocates Camp (SEACAMP), Waste Watchers, and Shark Shelter Project, among others (Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-b). A-B-Seas was implemented in Calatagan, Batangas from 2017-2019 to teach several local communities about marine biodiversity, conservation, and ecosystems while encouraging a pro-environmental behavior by connecting them to nature (Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-c). SPS also started mobilizing the youth in an environmental education and leadership program in 2015 in the form of SEACAMP (Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-d). Combining the conventional education delivery and the application of lessons learned to outdoor activities, the participants pitch environmental projects to culminate the program, which have the potential to be implemented and funded (Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-d). Apart from the information and education campaigns led by SPS, they were able to establish the Shark Shelter Project in 2012, which assembled the local communities and stakeholders in Malapascua Island, Cebu towards instituting a shark and ray sanctuary in Gato Island and Monad Shoal (Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-d). Thresher sharks (Alopias pelagicus) are
regularly found in a dive site in Monad Shoal, and are the primary species protected by the Shark Shelter Project for their importance to the aquatic ecosystem (Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-d).
Mother Earth Foundation has several programs towards zero waste advocacies, such as Zero Waste Cities, Zero Waste Youths, Waste Workers, and Juanazero Zero Waste Store (Mother Earth Foundation, n.d.). These programs raise the awareness of the communities on environmental issues while promoting a positive behavior and participation in resolving them (Devex, n.d.).
Coral Cay Conservation were the front runners of the Southern Leyte Coral Reef Conservation Project (LRCP) as early as 2002, building the capacities of various local volunteers and researchers on coral reef monitoring practices (Dallison and Tyley, 2021). From 2002 to 2020, Coral Cay Conservation was able to deliver complete ecological assessments, particularly on Sogod Bay and Panaon Island, as well as help establish 16 marine protected areas (MPAs) (Dallison and Tyley, 2021). Throughout the engagement of Coral Cay Conservation, various education and capacity building efforts to the local communities were organized, such as Sea Star Environmental Award Scheme (SEAS) for schools and Reef Rangers for students (Dallison and Tyley, 2021).
An ABS-CBN Foundation Inc. program, Science Education and Advocacy Institute – Verde Island Passage (SEA–VIP), promotes a science- based management strategy to manage and protect one of the most productive ecosystems and the center of marine biodiversity in the world encompassed in the strait, which was studied by Kent Carpenter and Victor Springer in 2005
(Conservation International, n.d.; SEA Institute, n.d.). Coral health and condition is monitored through the Citizen Science Monitoring Project, where volunteers were trained to examine coral reefs while free diving and snorkeling (SEA Institute, n.d.). Additionally, SEA Institute holds educational camps to teach community youth about the importance of biodiversity and the ecosystems and necessity to preserve the Verde Island Passage through both classroom and onsite lectures (SEA Institute, n.d.). Along with education and training, the organization expanded its reach in introducing income generating activities for the community and empowering its workforce, in areas such as textile weaving and handmade personal effects, to reduce the sole dependence on fisheries and fishing activities and promote other livelihood opportunities in the area (SEA Institute, n.d.).
Collaborative Environmental Efforts
In 2019, coastal communities and the local government units (LGUs) in the Island Garden City of Samal (IGACOS) in Davao del Norte and San Isidro in Davao Oriental pledged to combat plastic pollution through their commitment to the No Plastics in Nature initiative of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Philippines (UNESCAP, 2020). Under the partnership, the IGACOS LGU and WWF are working together to tackle waste management, residual processing, and the enforcement of the Environmental Code of 2018 (Juntereal, 2019).
WWF Philippines worked with the IGACOS LGU in the implementation of the Environmental Code of 2018, through residual processing – transforming plastic residuals to chairs and pavers as furnishings in eco parks (Juntereal, 2019). On the other hand, San Isidro LGU worked with WWF Philippines to plan and implement a science-based approach and policy to ban single- use plastics,
in a livelihood program aimed at generating income through recycling plastics in parallel to propagation of mangroves in their coastal areas (Juntereal, 2019).
Waves for Water (n.d.-a), a nonprofit organization that works towards aiding water scarcity problems especially in developing countries, fosters partnerships with private businesses to promote various sustainability options.
Two of which are the Clean Water for Every Filipino with San Miguel Corporation and the Gawad Katubigan with Land Bank of the Philippines, which both aim to give communities convenient access to clean water (Waves for Water, n.d.b). However, there was no further information provided on the site on the activities under the said collaborative efforts.
In an effort to advance public awareness on the impacts of plastic usage and pollution, the Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation, Inc.
(PRRCFI) partnered with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and SM Supermalls in launching the Awesome Seas initiative, dubbed #aweSMseas (Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation, Inc., n.d.-a; SM Cares, 2020). Through the initiative, they campaigned for information, education, and communication drives on environmental issues, especially the plight of aquatic and coastal biodiversity and communities, as well as further discussions on the pressing environmental issues (Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation, Inc., n.d.-a;
SM Cares, 2020). The same initiative also encouraged alternatives to single- use plastics, such as reusable containers and product refilling stations (Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation, Inc., n.d.-a; SM Cares, 2020). In addition, SM Supermalls have had several initiatives towards the same objective, such as recycling market where they incentivize individuals
who turn over their recyclables, water recycling program where water resources are reprocessed for non-potable use, and a film festival featuring films and documentaries about environmental issues (SM Cares, 2020). Similarly, PRRCFI launched the Sea Waste Education to Eradicate Plastic (SWEEP) program in 2018 to fight plastic pollution (Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation, Inc., n.d.-b). Their activities include coastal cleanups and audits, and city sweep walks, among many others (Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation, Inc., n.d.-b). Through their SWEEP mobile museum, they were able to mobilize their volunteers and expand the reach of information and promotion of sustainable and long-term solutions to persisting environmental problems in a rather creative and interactive method (Philippine Reef and Rainforest Conservation Foundation, Inc., n.d.-b).
Collaborative efforts from educational institutions, nongovernmental organizations, and the community and local government unit of Tingloy, Batangas succeeded in establishing an MPA and implementing a monitoring program for the site (Gaworecki, 2019). Gaworecki (2019) cited the following academic institutions who participated in laying the foundations of the MPA:
California Academy of Sciences, De La Salle University-Manila, Pusod, Inc., and SEA Institute – VIP. The local government of Tingloy pledged to a two-year coral reef health monitoring program, which consists of routine surveys and maintenance of the shoreline, with results recorded in a reef health report card alongside the data acquired by the program scientists for the site (Gaworecki, 2019).
Sustainable Alternatives
Recognizing that multiple solutions must be implemented, and a wide array of customary practices must be refashioned to accommodate changes in the environment, voluntary environmental programs often include the furtherance of environmentally sustainable tangibles and practices. In 2014, Gregg Yan founded the Best Alternatives campaign, an initiative that primarily purvy information on the environmental solutions to an array of persisting problems by giving prominence to the usage of alternative products and practices that are sustainable. In addition, the Best Alternatives campaign is not only limited to promoting the use of alternative products but also pushing for sustainable seafood, through improving aquaculture practices and operations in fish farms (van Beijnen & Yan, 2020a; van Beijnen & Yan, 2020b).
Filipino women have launched numerous movements and initiatives throughout incorporating environmentally considerate practices individually.
Among these women is Angelica Mata, who founded the Zero Waste Filipina in 2015, now called Low Impact Filipina, an online blog primarily focusing on promoting the advocacy of a zero-waste movement in the country, through conscious consumerism and sustainable habits.
In 2017, Bryan Madera founded Plastic Battle, an initiative looking to address plastic pollution through coordination with businesses, acknowledging that the large amount of solid and plastic wastes are both from the community and businesses (Fabro, 2018; Seastainable, 2020). The idea of the initiative lies in providing the consumers the better alternative to plastic use – encouraging refilling of containers instead of disposing single-use plastics and promoting a positive behavior of opting for refillables for water and other
consumables for consumers (Plastic Battle, n.d.; Seastainable, 2020). In 2018, the initiative partnered with over 60 business establishments in key tourist spots in Palawan, such as Coron, El Nido, and Puerto Princesa, and also Bohol, Boracay, Cebu and Zambales (Fabro, 2018). Among many of its accomplishments, Plastic Battle mapped the available refilling stations within select tourist destinations in the Philippines and is now accessible via a mobile application in its name (Fabro, 2018). Madera claims that these efforts can reduce a substantial amount of single-use plastic wastes, especially for remote areas that do not have recycling systems (Fabro, 2018).
Through the mainstream refilling petition, the Save Philippine Seas organization together with Human Nature proposed a policy to the Philippine government on strengthening efficient implementation of refilling stations to promote plastic container recycling and to inflict a significant change in plastic production and consumption (Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-a). The initiative pushes to redefine refilling commodities to separate from plastic manufacturing by providing safe and accessible refilling stations for various household and personal care products (Bataris, n.d.; Save Philippine Seas, n.d.-a).
On the other hand, Pusod, Inc. rendered efforts to preserve Verde Island Passage through a biodiversity conservation tool – social enterprise development (Pusod, Inc., 2019). Social enterprise is defined as a set of organizations operating to promote social equity among the fishing communities and generating income from trading and services while considering the least harmful and detrimental effects to the environment and its natural resources at its topmost priority (Pusod, Inc., 2019). Through this project, the organization aspires to reduce overfishing in the coastal area by
providing alternative income-generating activities and livelihood opportunities to the communities in the Batangas coastal municipalities along the marine key biodiversity area of the Verde Island Passage (Pusod, Inc., 2019).
Sustainability Plan and Approach
Following the devastation of coastal communities from typhoons, Conservation International Philippines, supported by the French Facility for Global Environment (FFEM), developed a multifaceted approach to build coastal resilience in Concepcion, Iloilo (Conservation International, n.d.-b).
Among their strategies is the implementation of a green gray, an approach applied to increase the resilience of communities at the forefront of natural disasters by combining a nature-based strategy with a traditional infrastructure, in the site, therefore promoting sustainable fisheries as well as vitalizing sustainable alternatives to income-generating activities (Conservation International, n.d.-b). Another facet of the plan is to work with the local government unit and coalesce environmentally aware regulations into policies and programs to increase climate change resilience (Conservation International, n.d.-b). Working with the coastal communities, Conservation International (n.d.-b) spearheaded educational awareness of the importance of mangroves in both fisheries and carbon sequestration and have successfully planted 300,000 mangrove seedlings in Baco, Oriental Mindoro. Similarly, alternative livelihood opportunities were opened in Silonay in helping build a watch tower and a 900-meter bamboo boardwalk for tourism activities, resulting in the commitment of the residents to end mangrove-cutting activities in the area (Conservation International, n.d.-b).
In addition, Conservation International Philippines has rendered efforts to support the Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape, in the form of fisheries and mangrove forest protection, establishment and monitoring of a network of MPAs, and providing the/coastal communities the necessary adeptness to manage the consequences of climate change (Conservation International, n.d.-c).
Conservation International (n.d.-c), together with partners from neighboring countries – Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste – takes on the needed measures towards an overall improvement in the conservation of the Sulu-Sulawesi Seascape, a transboundary MPA also covered by the Coral Triangle Initiative.
Similarly, Pusod, Inc. (2019) established a coral nursery in Calatagan, Batangas under the Sustainable Coral Reef Management Ecosystem Program (SCREMP) of DENR. Conservation International Philippines, on the other hand, banked on a set of holistic approaches to tackle the conservation of the Verde Island Passage since 2015, such as improving fishing practices by mitigating the deterioration of the coastal area and the depletion fish stocks, increasing the strength of coastal zones against the negative phenomenon brought by climate change through the protection and rehabilitation mangrove trees, diversifying local economic activities and sources of income by fortifying the skillset of the local communities and innovate local livelihoods, and scaling the conservation throughout the area through the establishment of marine protected area networks (Conservation International, n.d.-a).
Marine Conservation Philippines (2018) led several projects in Visayas, such as mangrove reforestation activities, coastal and ocean cleanup and recycling drives, fish surveys, fortification of MPAs through assessment and
analyses, as well as capacity building and education activities and financial support to Bantay Dagat.
In 2015, Marja Abad founded the Siargao Environmental Awareness (SEA) Movement, a community-based effort dedicated to the protection of the Siargao seas in General Luna (Madera, 2018). Aside from educating the youth and community, the SEA Movement also holds several activities, such as coastal and underwater cleanup, among many others. Recently, they signed a memorandum of agreement with Siargao Islands Protected Landscape and Seascape (SIPLAS) to further the capabilities and resources of both entities in helping coastal and fisherfolk communities in Siargao.
V
RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
Reviewing environmental programs and initiatives headed by nongovernmental bodies allows for a discrete perspective than exclusively inquiring into the environmental policies and statutes administered by local government units and national government agencies. Voluntary environmental actions are often carried out in a different time frame and caliber than those enforced by government bodies. An example of an instance where the two are different is the bureaucratic system that is observed in signing a law into enforcement and the planning and implementation process of performing environmental activities within an organization, community, or an individual.
Generally, signing a law or policy into enforcement incurs a longer time and passes through several levels of scrutiny under different circumstances by relevant authorities whereas voluntary environmental actions take a significantly lower time to the latter. However, both immediate and long-term outturns are observed from cumulative actions and programs stemming from volunteer organizations and individuals alike albeit planning and implementing undergo a relatively short period. Several organizations, through their environmental advocacies, have helped establish, monitor, and maintain protected areas in different regions in the country.
The results suggest an apparent dearth of information for voluntary environmental programs and initiatives led by non-government entities became noticeable in the course of data collection. Documentation of voluntary environmental programs and initiatives have been sparse and far between –
from the blog sites and websites of non-governmental organizations to social media posts – promotion of these environmental efforts have not been streamlined to be accessible to the general public, such as regular publication in news bulletins, newspapers, television news, among others. On top of this, even though some of these initiatives are recognized by the government, sustainable promotion of these activities and programs are highly limited. This sparseness in publicity may also be attributed to the primary trait of initiatives and voluntary movements of being an alternative to traditional means of environmental management through mandatory regulations and policies, rather than the traditional routes of advertising.
It was notable, however, that at the core of these initiatives and voluntary environmental programs were environmental literacy campaigns, through information and education drives, as well as capacity building for the communities, which further establishes the importance of addressing the problems at the grassroots rather than immediately attempting to tackle the problem at the surface. The rationale behind the frequency of environmental and education drives within these voluntary programs is rooted within the noticeable insufficiency of adequate information cascaded to the general public in terms of sustainable solutions and accessible alternatives. In terms of frequency of occurrence, community cleanups come in second to the information drives among the environmental initiatives covered in this study.
The popularity of online petitions in raising awareness and calling for a collective action from a certain authority or group was also observed throughout the study. Petitions are used to gather consent of the public through online signatures and ticking a box signifying the agreement to its terms and
conditions. Among the various calls of petitions are demanding transparency from a company, immediate action from the government, or a collective action to change a practice from a group of people. Similarly, several calls to action may also be endorsed by different organizations and are often cited within the body of the petition. Concurrent to the actions demanded, petitions also raise awareness among individuals chanced upon in platforms where these petitions are promoted since rationales, documentation, and bases are oftentimes well- covered in the description of each petition to impart adequate information to the readers.
Based on the accounts of the sources, both group and individual efforts led to valuable practices and budding long-term benefits to the coastal environment and community in the localities. In an economic standpoint, several efforts were directed in capacitating the local community on income- generating activities that are independent of fisheries in the area. In promoting alternative sources of income, fishery and coastal resources are allowed a period to gradually recuperate with less exploitation for livelihood purposes. In addition, educating and transferring knowledge to the youth and the community further promote literacy and methodical awareness on an environmental aspect through multiple subjects, including the inner workings of the coastal environment and how fishing practices affect the overall condition of aquatic ecosystems, among others. Elemental to the economic and environmental alignment of the nongovernmental initiatives is the social respect of these activities, as these promote solidarity among the locals in the community in standing at the forefront of managing their coastal resources and understanding the weight of the responsibility of ensuring that future generations have
resources to sustain themselves. Introducing a variety of alternative livelihood projects to the local community encourages the innovation of different undertakings that are not reliant on the coastal resources, such as fishing activities, that when maintained, will significantly lessen the dependence on the aquatic ecosystem, therefore allowing for the resources to eventually recoup.
Aside from the numerous instances of exploration of other income- generating activities, there was a lack of documented innovative practices employed in the coastal environment, compared to the activities that were observed overseas in land-based ecosystems. In Kenya, the local communities implemented earthbag housing through sandbag walls and also from plastic bottles, which are more economical especially for lower income households and are impervious to a number of natural factors – earthquake, fire, and weather (Quaye et al., 2022). Considering the limitations of the study, well-documented environmental innovations specific to the Philippine coastal environment and its communities were not obtained. Nevertheless, the importance of innovating sustainable solutions – both introduced by nonprofit organizations or led by the communities – in coastal protection and resource management still remains alongside management strategies and mitigation plans to conserve and preserve aquatic ecosystems. As well as with other innovations, caution must be taken in implementing and adopting one in a particular community as the unique environmental conditions in a specific region might react differently from the expected or forecasted outcomes prior to its implementation.
Findings from the brand audits conducted by the Break Free From Plastic Movement and its constituents are highly significant data that must be incorporated into the statistics used by government institutions, such as the
National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) and the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), in publishing their monitoring reports as well as in supporting their recommendation of policies and statutes within their jurisdiction. Brand audits are beneficial for a variety of reasons – identification of top polluting manufacturers and most commonly used plastics, assessment of solid waste management in a locality, and cleanup of beached litter, among others.
Additional information such as the accounts of public perception towards the initiatives and the lead implementer is beneficial in presenting various voluntary environmental programs, as they allow for a wider understanding on the reach and influence of certain organizations or individuals and the programs being implemented. As communities are the primary stakeholders and implementers of environmental initiatives, information on public perception can provide insights in assessing the potential longevity and sustainability of the implementation. However, for the initiatives reviewed in this study, there were limited details on how the local community or the public received the introduction and implementation of the initiatives. Moreover, best practices can be identified from the initiatives to scale up implementation, taking into account other communities belonging to a broader category of environmental configuration and combating a similar set of challenges. Scaling up these initiatives expands the potential of the solutions to more communities, allowing for similar problems across the country to be addressed. However, a significant difference in each community’s capacity to accept and implement these programs must be weighed in the planning phase. Among the factors that affect public acceptance and implementation is the collective financial position of the
locality, as this dictates the priorities of the members of the community therefore affecting their ability to adopt certain changes, especially those that are designed for the long-term sustainability of the community, which often do not produce visible results instantaneously. Similarly, the discussion on the social and economic aspects of the region plays an important role in characterizing the potential impacts of voluntary environmental programs and their ability to perpetuate its application until the original problems are addressed.
In maintaining the long-term implementation of environmental programs introduced by individuals, organizations, or authorities, the participation of the community is requisite to the success and attainment of the objectives driving the initiative. With the members of the community carrying out the necessary activities to bring the required changes into fruition, the implementers must be able to translate the importance of the movement to the community in ways that are comprehensible at the grassroots. Ideally, practices are best integrated into the existing beliefs and customs of the community, to ensure a well-ordered collective transition that is not entirely foreign and incoherent to the current status quo. In addition, the roadmap to to secure and sustainable governance of our environmental resources, is a multifaceted liability that have to be taken upon by its constituents – the people, whether be it the government, private organizations, and the individuals affected by the adverse impacts caused by the cumulative degradation of the environment from poor management practices throughout time.
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