CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Concepts and Theories
2.1.4 Behavioral Intention
Figure 2.3 The Role of the MTE
Clawson and Knetsch conducted a diachronic dynamic analysis of tourism experience, and considered that on-site experience is the undergoing tourism experience behavior and emphasized on the traveling situation of tourists (Clawson &
Knetsch, 1966). Since the occurrence of on-site experience behaviors are the physical representations of tourists entering into the tourism world, it is limited by time and space compared with the daily life world, which determines the transient nature of tourism on-site experience. When deciding to travel and select destination areas, tourists may recall their past experiences in the first place (Kerstetter & Cho, 2004;
Raju, Reilly, Research, & Woodside, 1979). Compared with on-site experiences that provide temporary sensations, participants’ on-site travel experiences don’t necessarily translate into memories, and only experiences stored in personal memories are more durable (J.-H. Kim, 2018; Otto & Ritchie, 1996; Tung & Ritchie, 2011a).
their objective beliefs and subjective emotions, while their actual behaviors depend on their behavioral intention, because the behavioral intention is highly correlated with their behaviors (Ajzen, 1991). Therefore, behavioral intention is an effective method to predict individual’s future behaviors (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975; Tsai, 2016).
Good behavioral intentions represent customers’ loyalty, and measuring loyalty can better understand customers’ retention rate (Tsai, 2016). Shoemaker and Lewis pointed out that loyal customers are of high value because they can act as free word-of-mouth advertising agents by recommending products or services to their friends, relatives or other potential customers (Shoemaker & Lewis, 1999).
Destination loyalty is usually reflected in tourists’ willingness to revisit and recommend destinations (Oppermann, 2000).
2.1.5 Theory……….
2.1.5.1 Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Models (CAB)
Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Models (CAB) is also known as effective hierarchy model, created by Robert J Lavidge and Gary A Steiner (Lavidge
& Steiner, 1961). Since then, researchers who study consumers’ or tourists’ behaviors have used the model as their theoretical basis (H. Zhang et al., 2018). Lavidge and Steiner suggested that cognition, Affective and behavior are the three stages of consumer behaviors (Figure 2.4). Cognition (thinking): for consumers to understand the product and gather product knowledge; Affective (feeling): make consumers like the product brands and have faith; Behavior: recommend consumers buy products of certain brands.
Figure 2.4 CAB Model
2.1.5.2 The Theory of Planned Behaviors
The Theory of Planned Behavior was proposed by Icek Ajzen (Ajzen, 1985), which is developed from the theory of rational action and is used to explain human behaviors in specific situations (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975).
The theoretical framework (Figure 2.5) regards behavioral intention to be the direct antecedent of behaviors that is determined by three main factors (i.e., attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control). First, the attitude to behavioral intention depends on two dimensions, namely behavioral belief and outcome evaluation. The second is subjective norms, subject to individual normative beliefs and compliance motivators. The third type is perceived behavioral control, which is influenced by control beliefs and perceived power (Coudounaris & Sthapit, 2017).
Ajzen pointed out that behavior is a function of compatible intentionality and behavioral control perception, because expected behavioral control is expected to mitigate the influence of intentionality on behavior, so that good intentions can produce behaviors only when perceived behavioral control is strong (Ajzen, 1991).
Figure 2.5 Theory of Planned Behavior
Note: Solid line, part of rational action; Dotted line, part of planned behavior
2.1.5.3 The Information Processing Theory
The information processing theory is a cognitive theory that uses computer processing as a metaphor for the workings of the human brain. The two main theorists associated with cognitive information processing theory are Atkinson and Shiffrin (Malmberg, Raaijmakers, & Shiffrin, 2019), who have proposed the multi-stage memory theory, which suggests that information passes through different stages from the time being received by a processing system before it is fully stored and is decomposed into sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory (Malmberg, Raaijmakers, & Shiffrin, 2019).
Sensory memory is responsible for retaining the information we sensed.
For example, on hearing the bird’s singing, we assume there is a bird nearby because that information is stored in our sensory memory. Short-term memory has a limited capacity and retains information we need only for a short time, such as remembering the phone number. However, long-term storage has an infinite amount of space, and we start store memories since we were born. When recalling events from our youth, we take the advantage of long-term memory (Shiffrin, 2018).
The theory proposed that human cognitive process is a process of information processing, including how people focus, select and receive information, how to encode, internalize and organize information, and how to use this information to make decisions and guide their work, behaviors and so on.
2.2 Research Results of MTEs
2.2.1 Kim’s Research
Kim is one of the pioneers to research MTEs. Based on perception theory, his doctoral dissertation published in early period analyzed the emotional experience, the evaluation of cognitive and the particularity of events, and he proposed the seven dimensions that affect the formation of memory (J.-H. Kim, Ritchie, & McCormick, 2012). This dimension theory is currently the most widely used (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6 Dimensions of MTEs Source: J.-H. Kim et al. (2012).
Firstly, Kim studied the components of tourism experience and concluded that tourism experience is composed of 19 factors, respectively are Involvement, Hedonism, Happiness, Pleasure, Relaxation, Stimulation, Refreshment, Social interaction, Spontaneity, Meaningfulness, Knowledge, Challenge, Sense of separation, Timelessness, Adventure, Personal relevance, Novelty, Escaping pressure and Intellectual cultivation. Some studies have pointed out that travel experience does not necessarily translate into MTEs. Hence, according to the previous literature, analyzed 19 factors of tourism experience were re-analyzed by Kim and 16 factors that could strongly affect individual tourism experience memory were finally determined (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2 Potential Constructs of the Memorable Tourism Experience Component of
the TE
Definition of Component References Hedonism A feeling of pleasure, fun,
and amusement that excites oneself
Dunman and Mattila (2005);
Grappi and Montanari (2011);
Mannell and Kleiber (1997);
Otto and Ritchie (1996)
Component of the TE
Definition of Component References Relaxation A feeling of comfort and
pleasure without involving physical activity
Howard et al. (1993);
Mannell, Zuzanek, and Larson (1988)
Stimulation Arousal of feelings that heighten and/or invigorate oneself
Arnould and Price (1993);
Bolla, Dawson, and Harrington (1991); Howard et al. (1993);
Obenouretal (2006);
Samdahl (1991) Adverse
feelings
Negative psychological feelings
Aziz (1995);
Ryan (1991, 1993) Social
interaction
A feeling of connection and group identity with travel partners and/or local people
Ap and Wong (2001);
Arnould and Price (1993);
Bolla, Dawson, and Harrington (1991); Howard et al. (1993);
Obenour et al. (2006);
Samdahl (1991) Happiness A feeling of joy that springs
from the heart
Bolla, Dawson, and Harrington (1991)
Challenge An experience that demands physical and/or mental ability
Lee, Dattilo, and Howard (1994); Mannell and Iso-Ahola (1987)
Assessment of value
Evaluation of a trip in terms of monetary value and its usefulness
Latour and Peat (1979);
Ryan (2002);
Yoon and Uysal (2005) Assessment of
service
An individuals’ perceived quality of service provided by tourism businesses
Bartlett and Einert (1992);
Leiss (1979);
Cliff and Ryan (1994) Unexpected
happenings
An event or situation, which was not foreseeable, that one
Aziz (1995);
Christianson (1992);
Component of the TE
Definition of Component References is faced with while traveling Ryan (1991, 1993);
Talarico and Rubin (2003) Personal
relevance
The level of involvement of oneself with a tourism experience
Bloch and Richins (1983);
Blodgett and Granbois (1992);
Celsi and Olson (1988);
Park and Hastak (1994);
Sanbomatsu and Fazio (1990);
Swinyard (1993) Participation A physical involvement with
the tourism experience
Berry, Carbone, and Haeckel (2002); Pine and Gilmore (1999)
Refreshment The state of being refreshed Howard et al. 1993; Hull and Michael 1995; Samdahl 1991 Knowledge Information, facts, or
experiences known by an individual
Blackshaw (2003);
Otto and Ritchie (1996);
Weiler and Yu (2008) Meaningfulness A sense of great value or
significance
Bruner (1991);
Jamal and Hollinshead (2001);
Noy (2004);
Wilson and Harris (2006) Novelty A psychological feeling of
newness resulting from having new experiences
Dunman and Mattila (2005);
Farber and Hall (2007);
Weiler and Yu (2008)
Source: J.-H. Kim et al. (2012).
Note: TE=Tourism experience
Subsequently, 62 individuals were interviewed and 9 themes were finally determined: hedonism, social interaction, knowledge, novelty, happiness, relaxation, challenge, unexpected happenings, and adverse feelings; and then the seven-factor
model were obtained through EFA and CFA, namely: hedonism, involvement, novelty, local culture, refreshment, knowledge and meaningfulness (Table 2.3).
Table 2.3 Potential Component of MTEs
Factors Definition Source
Hedonism pleasurable feelings that excite oneself. Kim, 2010 Local culture An experience of host cultures by
observing and/or encountering local people.
Morgan and Xu, 2009;
Weiler and Yu, 2008
Refreshment The state of being refreshed. Howard et al., 1993;
Hull and Michael, 1995;
Samdahl, 1991 Knowledge Information, facts, or experiences
known by an individual.
Blackshaw, 2003;
Otto and Ritchie, 1996;
Weiler and Yu, 2008 Meaningfulness A sense of great value or significance. Bruner, 1991;
Jamal and Hollinshead, 2001; Noy, 2004;
Wilson and Harris, 2006 Novelty A psychological feeling of newness
resulting from having new experiences.
Dunman and Mattila, 2005;
Farber and Hall, 2007;
Weiler and Yu, 2008 Involvement A physical involvement with the
tourism experience.
Berry, Carbone, and Haeckel, 2002
Source: J.-H. Kim et al. (2012).
The following is going to state each dimension respectively:
1) Hedonism
hedonism in the tourism experience were defined as “pleasurable feelings that excite oneself “(J.-H. Kim, 2010). Having pleasant experiences is one of the basic motivations of travelers (J.-H. Kim et al., 2012). Because pleasurable hedonic experiences (such as fantasy, emotion, and fun) are highly correlated with hedonic values in travel experiences (Holbrook, 2006). It seems that this desire to seek experience is necessary in travel experience (Otto & Ritchie, 1996). Traveling is a kind of “escape”, as well as a “pursuit”. From the perspective of escaping, tourism is more driven by mitigation or compensation. From the perspective of pursuit, tourism mainly reflects the effort of self-actualization. Tourism will eventually manifest or return to the emotional level, so that compensators or self-implementers can feel satisfied, and tourists can finally obtain psychological pleasure through compensation or realization (Xie, 2005).
2) Local culture
Local culture is defined as “An experience of host cultures by observing and/or encountering Local people” (J.-H. Kim et al., 2012). Travelers seek authenticity (MacCannel, 1973), which strongly attracts people to go to certain places and experience their real culture. Destinations attract more travelers through cultural heritages and local activities (Mitchell & Orwig, 2002).
3) Refreshment
Refreshment is defined as “the state of being refreshed” (J.-H. Kim et al., 2012).As a major motivation for tourists, refreshment is a major component of tourism and leisure. Therefore, a sense of freedom or relaxation is an important empirical factor that determines satisfaction (M.-H. Huang, 2001; Mitchell & Orwig, 2002; Park, 2016).
4) Knowledge
Knowledge is defined as “information, facts, or experiences known by an individual” (J.-H. Kim et al., 2012). Education and learning experiences are of important values to encourage customers to participate in the experience (Pine &
Gilmore, 1998). First-hand experience is a practical way to acquire knowledge and an effective way to learn (Burka, Sarnat, & John, 2007). The consumption experience or
decision-making process also involve collecting and applying knowledge. In addition, learning is one of the basic dimensions of a memorable experience (Oh et al., 2016).
In traveling, visiting a new place or interacting with local residents is part of learning about different cultures, which can be applied in different environments, such as wildlife tourism, food tourism and activity tourism (Park, 2016). Therefore, learning or education is an important aspect of travel experience (Hung & Petrick, 2011).
5) Meaningfulness
Meaningfulness is defined as “A sense of great value or significance”
(J.-H. Kim et al., 2012). Meaningfulness in tourism experience can be interpreted as a feeling of significant value or meaning (J.-H. Kim, 2010). During this period, people can reflect on the value and meaning of their lives, and gaining the sense of meaning through idle time is a valuable reward, rather than just travel (Tung & Ritchie, 2011a).
6) Novelty
Novelty is defined as “A psychological feeling of newness resulting from new experiences” (J.-H. Kim et al., 2012). Possessing new experience is an important motivation for travel, and new experiences lead to positive emotional expressions such as happiness or curiosity (Bello & Etzel, 1985; T.-H. Lee &
Crompton, 1992).
7) Involvement
Involvement is defined as “A physical Involvement with the Tourism Experience” (J.-H. Kim et al., 2012). Pine and Gilmore deem customers’ experience is created through the interaction between customers and products, services, environment and service personnel (Pine & Gilmore, 1998). Besides, personalized service is an important principle of designing customers’ experience, which plays a role in making customers to engage or to experience. To meet expectations, travelers participate directly or indirectly in the tourism experience (Goulding, 2000) Travelers spend money and time on traveling, which are fundamental factors in creating participatory experiences (S.-S. Kim, Scott, & Crompton, 1997).
Kim (2016) also developed a conceptual framework (Figure 2.7): Tourism experience factors and components of memorable tourism experience are the basis of management practices (encouraging people to participate through experience, reinforcing positiveness through remedy of negativeness, and developing various
souvenirs), which can help managers to carry out strategic planning and project design in destination management (Sotiriadis & Gursoy, 2016). This conceptual framework looks deeper into previously developed seven-dimensional scale, rather than just focusing on positive emotions (e.g Hedonism, Involvement, Novelty, Local culture, Refreshment, Knowledge, Meaningfulness), and Negative emotions (e.g., adverse feelings).
Figure 2.7 A Conceptual Framework for the Design and Delivery of MTEs Source: Sotiriadis & Gursoy (2016, p. 440).
2.2.2 Dimension of MTEs
The main research results on MTEs in the past 10 years are classified through literature (Table 2.4), including an overview of the dimensions and the methods adopted in each study.
Table 2.4 Main Dimensions of the MTEs
Authors Dimensions Method
(Tung & Ritchie, 2011a)
1) Affection 2) Expectations 3) Consequentiality 4) Recollection
Qualitative, Grounded Theory, in-depth interviews, 208 students from a Canadian university.
(Tung & Ritchie, 2011b)
1) Identity formation 2) Family milestones 3) Relationship development
4) Nostalgia re-enactment 5) Freedom pursuits
Qualitative, Grounded Theory, 42 in-depth
interviews with people aged 55 or older, semi-structured, snowball.
(Ballantyne, Packer, &
Sutherland, 2011)
1)sensory impressions 2) emotional affinity 3) reflexive response 4) behavioural response
Qualitative, 240 open survey responses, four marine wildlife destinations, Queensland,
Australia.
(J.-H. Kim et al., 2012)
1) Hedonism 2) Refreshment 3) Local Culture 4) Meaningfulness 5) Knowledge 6) Involvement 7) Novelty
Quantitative, proposition and scale test, Survey, 511 students from a US university.
(Bharwani, 2013) 1) Emotional intelligence 2) Cultural intelligence 3) Hospitality experiential intelligence
Theoretical study. Hospitality Intelligence contributes to the co-creation of MTEs
(Ali et al., 2014) 1) entertainment, 2) education, 3) esthetic
examine the influence of four factors (4E) of customer experience on their memories
Authors Dimensions Method 4) escapism and loyalty. Quantitative,
PLS,450 customer in Malaysian resort hotels (Chandralal et al.,
2015)
two major findings: (a) bloggers mostly report positive MTEs in their experiential narratives and (b) such positive MTEs are often associated with seven experiential themes:
1) local people, life and culture
2) personally significant experiences
3) shared experiences 4) perceived novelty 5) perceived serendipity 6) professional guides and tour operator services 7) affective emotions associated with
memorable experiences.
Qualitative, an interpretive net no graphy approach, a purposive sample of 100 blog narratives, MAXQDA10 software
(Y.-J. Lee, 2015) 1) Motivation: Personal emotion, Knowledge learning, Culinary, Cultural inheritance 2) Nostalgia
3) MTEs: Hedonism, Local Culture, Refreshment,
Heritage tourism, Quantitative, SEM, 615 respondents who visited Taiwan, AMOS.
Knowledge and Personal Emotions were not significant predictors of MTEs.
Authors Dimensions Method Meaningfulness,
Knowledge (Pezzi &Vianna,
2015)
1) Entertainment 2) Education 3)Escapism 4) Aesthetics 5) Memory 6) Hospitality 7) Security
8) New Experience
Mixed.
Quantitative: Survey, 107 respondents visitors of Gramado, RS, Brazil.
Descriptive statistics.
Qualitative: Interviews, 11 tourists Gramado. Content analysis.
(Knobloch, Robertson,
& Aitken, 2017)
1) memorable 2) extraordinary 3) special 4) peak
Qualitative, 25 semi- structured interviews with tourists from 14 different countries who visited New Zealand. Thematic Content Analysis.
(Ali, Ryu, & Hussain, 2015)
1) Escape and recognition 2) peace of mind
3) unique involvement 4) interactivity
5) learning
A convenient sampling technique,600 visitors who had stayed at resort hotels in Malaysia, PLS
(Aroeira, Dantas, &
Gosling, 2016)
1) Hedonism 2) Involvement 3) Novelty
4) Local Culture and Knowledge
5) Refreshment
Quantitative, SEM, Survey, PLS, 664 Brazilian
respondents.
(Kim & Jang, 2016) 1) Animation 2) Personality traits 3) Auditory
MTEs Event Influences.
Quantitative, 285 potential participants of the memory
Authors Dimensions Method 4) Olfactory suggestion
5) Memorabilia
test.
(Tsai, 2016) 1) Hedonism 2) Involvement 3) Novelty
4) Meaningfulness 5) Refreshment 6) Local Culture 7) Knowledge
Quantitative, SEM, 378 tourists who visited Tainan.
(Coudounaris &
Sthapit, 2017)
1) Hedonism 2) Refreshment 3) Local Culture 4) Meaningfulness 5) Knowledge 6) Involvement 7) Novelty
Mixed.
Qualitative (i-structured interviews)
Quantitative (AMOS) 314 visitors
(Coelho & Gosling, 2018)
1) Environment 2) Culture
3) Relationship with companions
4) Relationship with tourists
5) Relationship with local Agents
6) Novelty 7) Emotions 8) Dream
9) Meaningfulness 10) Refreshment 11) Hedonism
Quantitative, SEM,1193 Brazilians, EFA, CFA
Authors Dimensions Method 12) Involvement
(Coelho et al., 2018) 1) Ambiance 2) Socialization 3) Emotions and Reflection.
qualitative, grounded theory, narrative research,76
travelers.
(Cao, Li, DiPietro, &
So, 2018)
1) Affect 2) Sensory 3) Social 4) Intellectual
Memorable dining experiences (MDE) Mixed: Quantitative, PLS- PM
Qualitative, In-depth interviews
(Wei et al., 2019) The results showed that the recollection of MTE was positively affected by novelty, involvement and social interaction.
six influencing factors of MTEs (hedonism,
novelty, involvement, social interaction, serendipity, meaningfulness)
exploring psychological components of MTEs.
301 urban residents, SEM, CFA
According to the related research on MTEs (Table 2.4), this paper will summarize the research methods, dimensions of MTEs, integration model of MTEs and research limitation in light of relevant studies on MTEs.
1) Research Methods
The study on the dimension of MTEs adopts quantitative method, qualitative method or a combination of both. Scholars prefer to adopt quantitative research methods to analyze the correlation between MTEs and other factors. Scholars applied Kim’s (2012) seven-dimension scale, and then conducted structural equation
verification analysis based on questionnaire survey. For example, some researchers directly adopted Kim’s seven-dimension scale to analyze the relationship between MTEs, place dependence, place identity and behavioral intention (Tsai, 2016), as well as an empirical analysis of tourism motivation, satisfaction, destination imagination and behavioral intention (Coudounaris & Sthapit, 2017; Y.-J. Lee, 2015; Tsai, 2016;
Wei et al., 2019; H. Zhang et al., 2018).
In researching on the structure or characteristics of MTEs, scholars prefer to adopt qualitative research methods such as in-depth interview or content analysis method, and the results of qualitative research often vary by the selection of different research objects. For example, Sthapit analyzes the composition of tourists’
memorable hotel experiences with the grounded theory, and the research results reveal three components: comfortable beds, friendly attitude of hotel staff, delicious breakfasts, various choices and excellent restaurant services at the hotel (Sthapit, 2017b). In addition, semi-structured interviews and in-depth interviews have been conducted in other studies (Tung & Ritchie, 2011b).
Qualitative research is often used to determine the dimensions of some new dimensions and new research directions, and then quantitative methods are applied to empirical analysis (Ali et al., 2014; Cao et al., 2018; Chandralal et al., 2015; Coudounaris & Sthapit, 2017). For example, some scholars adopted a mixed method to obtain five first-order dimensions in studying memorable dining experiences (MDE), respectively are feeling, emotion, behaviors, society and knowledge, which fills the knowledge gap in MDE research (Cao et al., 2018).
Therefore, no matter of conducting both qualitative research and quantitative research, appropriate research methods should be chosen in light of actual researches.
2) Dimension of MTEs
No matter of adopting a quantitative or qualitative research, MTEs are composed of multi-dimensional elements. The dimensions of MTEs are mainly divided into the following categories:
Directly drawing from the dimensions developed by predecessors. The existing researches on the dimensions of tourist experience memory mainly cite the seven-dimension scale of Kim (2012) (Coudounaris & Sthapit, 2017; Y.-J. Lee, 2015;