UNVEILING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE GRIT OF THAI ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS, ENGAGEMENT, AND LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT IN AN ONLINE SETTING

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JETTAPOL KIATKEEREE

Graduate School Srinakharinwirot University 2021

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ความสัมพันธ์ระหว่างความอุตสาหะระยะยาว การเรียนแบบมีส่วนร่วมและผลสัมฤทธิ์ทางการ เรียนภาษาอังกฤษบนช่องทางการเรียนออนไลน์

เจตพล เกียรติคีรี

ปริญญานิพนธ์นี้เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของการศึกษาตามหลักสูตร ศิลปศาสตรมหาบัณฑิต สาขาวิชาภาษาศาสตร์

คณะมนุษยศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยศรีนครินทรวิโรฒ ปีการศึกษา 2564

ลิขสิทธิ์ของมหาวิทยาลัยศรีนครินทรวิโรฒ

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JETTAPOL KIATKEEREE

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS

(Linguistics)

Faculty of Humanities, Srinakharinwirot University 2021

Copyright of Srinakharinwirot University

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THE THESIS TITLED

BY

JETTAPOL KIATKEEREE

HAS BEEN APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE MASTER OF ARTS

IN LINGUISTICS AT SRINAKHARINWIROT UNIVERSITY

(Assoc. Prof. Dr. Chatchai Ekpanyaskul, MD.) Dean of Graduate School

ORAL DEFENSE COMMITTEE

... Major-advisor (Assoc. Prof. Dr.Sugunya Ruangjaroon)

... Chair

(Assoc. Prof. Dr.Supakorn Phoocharoensil)

... Committee (Assoc. Prof. Dr.Siriporn Panyametheekul)

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D

ABSTRACT

Title UNVEILING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE GRIT OF THAI ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS, ENGAGEMENT, AND LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT IN AN ONLINE SETTING

Author JETTAPOL KIATKEEREE

Degree MASTER OF ARTS

Academic Year 2021

Thesis Advisor Associate Professor Sugunya Ruangjaroon

Past research has found that an individual’s academic success, including success in English language learning, can be predicted by a person’s ‘grit’. Grit is a personality trait defined as the combination of perseverance of effort and the consistency of interests. Other than grit, learner engagement is another factor considered to be highly related to levels of academic achievement.

However, the paradigm of English language learning has transitioned to online settings. Therefore, it is important to know how students’ grit is affected by such a transition. The purpose of this study is to investigate the grit and online engagement of 563 Thai English language learners (ELLs) and to study the relationship between Thai ELLs’ grit, learner engagement, and their English language achievement in online settings. Grit scales and online engagement scales were used to collect the data. The present study found that grit positively correlates with language achievement and engagement. Furthermore, it also found that grit is a predictor of language achievement while online engagement demonstrated no predictive value to language achievement. The results are aligned with, and corroborate, the work of Teimouri et al. (2020) suggesting that grit is associated with success in English language learning.

Keyword : Grit, Engagement, Language achievement, Online learning

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor, Associate Professor Dr. Sugunya Ruangjaroon, for her encouragement, insightful suggestions, and moral support throughout the study. This thesis would not have been possible without her support. I sincerely wish her all the best.

My sincere appreciation goes to the Graduate School of Srinakharinwirot University for providing the scholarship for the 70th Anniversary of SWU: SWU for Society by funding me throughout my study. I will always be deeply grateful for the support.

I would like to extend my gratitude to the thesis committee and all the instructors for their valuable time, suggestions, and kindness. Furthermore, I also would like to sincerely thank the experts for validation of the research instrument, comments and suggestions.

Mostly importantly, I would like to express gratitude towards the students who participated in the study as well as the cooperation of teachers from the school.

JETTAPOL KIATKEEREE

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LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1 Factor and Grit scale items ... 34

Table 2 Factor and Engagement questionnaire items ... 35

Table 3 Interpretation of the mean values of Grit score ... 38

Table 4 Interpretation of the mean values of Engagement score ... 38

Table 6 Mean and standard deviations of language achievement ... 40

Table 7 Mean and standard deviation of Grit score ... 41

Table 8 Results of items on perseverance of effort ... 42

Table 9 Results of items on consistency of interests ... 44

Table 10 Mean and standard deviation of Grit score ... 46

Table 11 Results of items on behavioral engagement ... 47

Table 12 Results of items on emotional engagement ... 49

Table 13 Results of items on cognitive engagement ... 51

Table 14 Correlations between Grit and Language Achievement ... 53

Table 15 Correlations between Engagement and Language Achievement ... 54

Table 16 Correlations between Grit and Engagement ... 54

Table 17 Multiple Regression results of Grit and Engagement on Language Achievement ... 55

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LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 1 Research framework ... 8 Figure 2 Grit-O scale and Grit-S scale comparison ... 18 Figure 3 Research procedure ... 33 Figure 4 The distribution of the learners’ responses to questionnaire items relating to perseverance of effort ... 43 Figure 5 The distribution of the learners’ responses to questionnaire items relating to consistency of interests ... 45 Figure 6 The distribution of the learners’ responses to questionnaire items relating to behavioral engagement ... 48 Figure 7 The distribution of the learners’ responses to questionnaire items relating to emotional engagement ... 50 Figure 8 The distribution of the learners’ responses to questionnaire items relating to cognitive engagement ... 52

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INTRODUCTION

Background

Several studies on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) have been conducted in an attempt to understand what factors determine successful and non-successful foreign language learners in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (Renandya, 2013; Van Canh & Renandya, 2017; Vibulphol, 2015). It has been continuously reported that Thailand confronts a situation of the low English proficiency level of Thai English language learners (ELLs) as Thailand was ranked at 89 out of 100 countries, with scores of 419 out of 800 and a very low proficiency level in the annual English Proficiency Index (EF, 2020). This represents that Thailand requires more efforts to improve learners’ English proficiency.

Several attempts have been made to improve the English proficiency of learners over the past decades. Successful language learning is dependent on multiple facets, e.g., curriculums, teachers, pedagogies, and learners. For instance, curriculums specified in English, e.g., English programs (EP) were developed and applied in public schools nationwide, reflecting the attempt to enhance learners’ English proficiency (Kirkpatrick, 2012; Niemted, 2016; Noom-ura, 2013).

Apart from that, another factor leading to increased learners’ English proficiency lies with teachers. Teachers are one of the key factors towards successful students’

learning (Vibulphol, 2015). Qualified instructors are necessary for the L2 learning process.

Several studies attempted to investigate the correlation between teachers’ proficiency and their teaching ability in L2 classrooms (Van Canh & Renandya, 2017) and enhance teachers’ performance have been found continuously (Jamjuree, 2017; Sitti, Cojorn, &

Sonsupap, 2020; Vibulphol, 2015). Nevertheless, the overall English proficiency of learners in Thailand has not reached a satisfying point.

In the past century, SLA research has principally been conducted on teaching methods, teaching techniques, and teaching processes. In the early period of SLA research, a large number of studies focused on developing teaching methods. The focus

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was on teaching method comparisons to find the best teaching methods. Better designs of studies were conducted continuously during this period (Ellis, 2012). However, Prabhu (1990) stated that there is no best teaching method. Different teaching methods should be applied to different teaching contexts. He suggested that there are values in every teaching method, and the best method varies depending on teachers’ perception. In the Thai EFL context, many Thai teachers have implemented various approaches in their classrooms with the hope of improving learners’ language achievement. Even though those efforts have become more visible, the results are not as successful as expected.

Another dimension affecting the success of L2 learning is the learner factors. The influence of psychological factors on learners has been widely explored and investigated.

These factors can be categorized into three main dimensions: cognitive, affective, and social, and are believed to affect the learners’ English proficiency. Several researchers studied L2 acquisition from distinct theories and perspectives regarding cognitive domains, and socio-cultural domains (Renandya, 2013). Likewise, The affective factor has received much attention from scholars as it relates to the emotional aspects of human behavior, personality factors, and feelings (Brown, 2014).

In the 1970s, the trends of the research shifted to the investigation of individualized instruction. The interest was turned to the learners. The research articles in the 1980s were conducted in the interest of individual differences (IDs), such as attitudes, anxiety, personality, learning styles, and beliefs (Ellis, 2012). Hereafter, Dörnyei (2005) described that IDs are the most consistent predictors of L2 learning success. Many scholars have turned their interest to these non-cognitive traits and constructs (Afflerbach, 2016; Arabski & Wojtaszek, 2011; Dörnyei, 2005; Griffiths & Soruç, 2020; Skehan, 1991).

Without learners’ efforts, the learning process inclines to be not as successful as expected.

For the past decades, learners’ motivation, along with other involving personality traits, has been recognized as an important factor in successful L2 learning and has been widely examined (Griffiths & Soruç, 2020). The concept of motivation has drawn much attention from researchers in the field of SLA. The question “How does motivation play a

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role in language learning success?” has been raised since the 1960s (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015). Motivation has been seen as “a key to learning” (Brown, 2015) and “the key learner variable” (Schmitt & Rodgers, 2019). Motivation-based research from the mid-1970s has been very popular, prompting scholars to undertake more exploration and investigation into this topic. However, previous studies in the field of pedagogy suggest that the theory of motivation remains at a standstill.

However, there is more beyond motivation that could affect learners’ proficiency.

Grit, a newly proposed construct, has provoked educators’ attention. Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly (2007) proposed the concept of grit, a non-cognitive personality trait that can make learning more sustainable and attainable. Grit is a combination of perseverance and passion for long-term goals which are congruent with sustainability. Duckworth et al.’s research was conducted in the field of social psychology.

Many cross-sectional studies were done on various groups of participants, different in age, gender, and career. Grit appears to be a predictor of success.

Grit has been studied further in the field of education. Many studies suggest that there is a correlation between learners’ grit and their performance (Broghammer, 2017;

Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Lin & Chang, 2017; Strayhorn, 2014).

Learners with higher levels of grit trend to higher scores for their academic performance.

According to previous research, grit is found to be able to predict learners’ achievement.

Furthermore, one facet of grit, perseverance, was suggested by many educators as a significant skill in the intrapersonal domain in the 21^st century skills. Perseverance is considered to be one of the competencies that plays an important role in learning situations, work ethics, and life situations and results in the learner’s life-long outcomes (Pellegrino & Hilton, 2012). Therefore, the importance of perseverance, a factor of grit, is worth considering in the field of education. Grit concept is also extended specifically to the EFL learning setting.

In SLA, the concept of L2 grit has been explored and appears to influence L2 learners’ achievement. Teimouri, Plonsky, and Tabandeh (2020) proposed that L2 grit, a specific form of the personality trait, was related to the learners’ language achievement.

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Thus, they developed and validated the L2-grit scale to find out the level of learners’ grit.

The study confirmed that learners with higher levels of L2 grit become more successful in language learning than their classmates with less L2 grit. Furthermore, Wei, Liu, and Wang (2020) conducted similar research to explore the significance of L2 grit in Chinese English-knowing multilinguals. The L2 grit scale they used to collect data was adapted from Teimouri et al’s. The result of the study agreed with the work of Teimouri et al., suggesting that multilingual learners who have higher levels of L2 grit have higher levels of proficiency in English.

Due to the sudden change of the world with the coronavirus outbreak, the paradigm of learning and teaching has shifted. The previous version of learning in schools faded and was replaced with new modes of teaching and communicating. Most of the learning processes conducted during the pandemic took place in the online learning setting through digital platforms. Many researchers in the field of education have turned their attention to studying online learning settings (Aguilera-Hermida, 2020; Chen, Jin, Liang, & Liu, 2021; Xie & Huang, 2014; Zheng, Liang, Li, & Tsai, 2018). In online learning settings, new technology enables teachers to provide their learners with lessons despite being socially distanced. Many teaching methods have been developed to serve different purposes. The coming of new technology directly affected the teaching methods, which involved the concept of synchronous and asynchronous learning. Synchronous learning is an interactive learning event when both the teacher and the learners engage in the learning process at the same time. On the other hand, asynchronous learning refers to the process by which the instructor and the students engage in learning at different times (Russell & Murphy-Judy, 2021).

Despite the advances in technology, learning outcomes are still affected by the online learning environment. Online learning is limited by learners’ information processing capacity. Cognitive overload can be caused by combinations of learning modalities.

Furthermore, learners are limited by their knowledge and confidence in using technology.

Additionally, learners may not feel a sense of cognitive engagement or social connection which could negatively result in decreased learning outcomes (Patricia Aguilera-Hermida,

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2020). Apart from that, teachers are physically distant from learners. Learners are forced to have less interaction with their classmates and their instructors. Engagement and collaboration between learners and teachers have to be operated through technology. As a result, the learners receive less positive external motivation, forcing them to rely more on themselves.

With the change of learning environment, learners have to be much more independent since external forces, such as teachers, or school systems, are not as prominent in online learning. Successful learning is determined by the perseverance and consistency of interest of the learners.

The researcher first posits a foundational assumption which claims that grit is a predictor of learners’ success. Based on this assumption, the researcher then addresses the following questions:

1. To what extent do Thai ELLs demonstrate their grit and their engagement in online English learning?

2. How is Thai ELLs' grit related to their engagement, and their language achievement in an online setting?”

Therefore, the researcher has aimed to study the relationship between Thai ELLs’

grit, their online engagement in online English learning and their language achievement.

This research was conducted by survey with an explanatory correlational design to study associations among three variables. This study was conducted in the context of Thai ELLs.

The English proficiency level of Thai learners is considered to be at a low level (EF, 2021).

Thai students study English as a foreign language and as a lingua franca. English learning in Thailand differs from other countries, for instance the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia, where English is considered as a second language. Furthermore, English courses are compulsory for Thai students in primary and secondary schools. As a result, Thai high school students appear to be a good representative of Thai ELLs. This study was conducted in the context of high school students in the country’s most prestigious high school, which is ranked the highest for its excellent academic standards. The aim was to see at which level students demonstrate their grit and their engagement in online

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English learning and whether their grit is associated with the level of their online engagement and their language achievement in online English courses.

Objectives

1. To investigate Thai ELLs’ grit and their engagement

2. To study the relationship between Thai ELLs’ grit, their engagement with it, and their language achievement on online settings

Research questions

1. To what extent do Thai ELLs demonstrate their grit and their engagement?

2. How is Thai ELLs' grit related to their engagement, and their language achievement in an online setting?

Hypotheses

1. Thai ELLs’ grit is significantly positively correlated with language achievement in an online setting.

2. Thai ELLs’ engagement is significantly positively correlated with language achievement in an online setting.

3. Thai ELLs’ grit is significantly positively correlated with engagement in an online setting.

4. Grit significantly predicts language achievement in an online setting.

5. Engagement significantly predicts language achievement in an online setting.

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Significance

The current work is deemed to be significant as it presents an interdisciplinary study that hopes to integrate the fields of psychology and language learning. This research also unveiled and confirmed the significance of the principle of grit, a non- cognitive trait, which has been confirmed that it affects the successful language learning process. The findings obtained from this study offer a better understanding of the learner engagement especially in the context of language learning. The findings of this study would be beneficial for future experimental research in the field of language learning. The research results presented here can be taken into account when planning and developing language teaching and learning. Greater understanding of grit and learner engagement would help language teachers navigate their learners to be more successful in language learning. Instructors can apply the findings of the research to their teaching methods reinforcing learners to maintain their consistent interest and pursue their long-term goals.

Scope of the Study

Theoretical framework

The current work takes the concept of grit to study English language learning through examining a concept of grit grown out of the work of several psychologists including Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly (2007). This research also studies the concept of grit in the different learning environments, the online settings. Additionally, this research adopts the concept of learner engagement from Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004) to study learners’ engagement during their online English courses. The understanding of the concepts of grit and learner engagement allows the researcher to study the relationship between grit and engagement.

Variables

1. Thai ELLs’ grit

2. Thai ELLs’ engagement

3. Learners’ language achievement

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Research framework

Figure 1 Research framework Definition of terms

1. Grit refers to a non-cognitive trait comprised of two facets: perseverance of effort and consistency of interest. Perseverance of effort refers to the dedication towards a certain goal. Consistency of interest refers to the persistence of interest towards a long- term goal. Grit is the predictor of successful English learning resulting in sustainable and attainable learning outcomes. Learners with high grit have high English proficiency which can be seen in their grades and show interest in English activities.

2. Engagement refers to the learners’ feeling of being involved in their learning.

Engagement can be categorized into 3 components. Behavioral engagement refers to the learners’ participation and attendance during the class. Emotional engagement refers to the preference, attitudes, emotions of the learners. Lastly, cognitive engagement refers to the concept of commitment and investment e.g., time, energy, and effort which learners put in their learning during the online courses.

3. Thai English language learners (ELLs) in this research refer to high school students in a public school who are Thai native speakers and are currently learning English in a foreign setting.

Online setting Engagement

Grit

Language Achievement

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4. Language achievement refers to Thai ELLs’ English proficiency which is reflected in form of their grades in 8 English courses (four Core courses and four Reading and Writing courses) in 4 semesters. The final grades in each course were evaluated based on both formative and summative assessments.

5. Online learning setting refers to the learning environment on which takes place digital platform where the teachers and learners are physically distant and the whole learning process occurs through online platform either synchronously or asynchronously.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter gives an overview of the relevant literature and the main theoretical claims. It is necessary to refer to a wide range of background literature that spans the fields of second language acquisition coupled with psychology, the concept of grit, a non- cognitive construct, learner engagement, and online language learning.

1. Second Language Acquisition

There are many divergent views on second language acquisition. Second language acquisition is defined as the study of learners’ L2 knowledge development over time and the causes of its change (Ellis, 2015). Second language acquisition involves the process of learning a language subsequent to the first language and people who are learning the language. The language in the process of learning, whether it is the second, third, or fourth, is known as a second language (Saville-Troike, 2012). L2 acquisition of a non-native language can happen in both second and foreign language contexts.

The difference between a second language and a foreign language involves a setting. The former refers to the language learning taking place in an environment where the language is used as an official language, and the latter refers to a language learning environment where the language is not commonly and widely used in the learners’ social context (Ellis, 2015; Saville-Troike, 2012; Yule, 2010). The context of English learning in Thailand is considered a foreign language context. Thai students are learning English as a foreign language (EFL). The current theory has now shifted to English as a Lingua Franca.

English as a lingua Franca is the use of English as a medium in communication. English now performs as shared means of communication among people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Sometimes the concept is also known as International Englishes or Global Englishes (Formentelli, 2017; Smit, 2010). This concept receives a great deal of attention from researchers (e.g., Jenkins, Seidlhofer and,

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Smit). The concept of English as a lingua Franca leads to the acceptance of variations of English and renders the terms ‘native’ and ‘native-like’ improper (Brown, 2015).

Many individuals face the barriers of L2 acquisition as they were exposed to the L2 in their adolescence or adulthood rather than encountered it as a child. However, some individuals are able to overcome the hardship of L2 acquisition. In recent years, the study of L2 acquisition has been altered from focusing on teachers or teaching methods to focusing on learners (Yule, 2010).

There are several factors that help L2 learners overcome their difficulties and eventually succeed in language learning. In the field of SLA, psychological factors are taken into consideration. There are two main types of psychological factors, which are cognitive, and affective. The factors dealing with the organization, storage, and retrieval of information are called cognitive factors. Intelligence and language aptitude are cognitive factors widely investigated in SLA research. The affective factors include empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, anxiety, attitudes, and more (Brown, 2014; Ellis, 2015). Only affective factors are relevant to the main argument of this thesis. Therefore, the researcher exclusively elaborated on this factor.

2. Individual Differences

Affective factors are believed to be significant for L2 learning. Many researchers have turned their interests to these factors. Individual differences have been most explored in the affective domain. Factors generated by individuals have to be considered when discussing successful in language learning. The interest in the studies of individual learner variables has increased, as the awareness of the role of these factors has been recognized in successful language development (Afflerbach, 2016; Arabski &

Wojtaszek, 2011; Dörnyei, 2005; Griffiths & Soruç, 2020; Skehan, 1991).

Individual differences (IDs) include a wide range of factors. As the concept has been broadly explored, numerous factors are mentioned under the concept of IDs.

Scholars proposed their own set of factors involved. The constructs which were listed by many researchers include aptitude, intelligence, beliefs, and anxiety. Apart from these constructs, the attention in other constructs such as autonomy, learning strategies,

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personality, motivation has increased and the constructs are believed to be principal elements of success in L2 learning (Afflerbach, 2016; Arabski & Wojtaszek, 2011; Dörnyei, 2005; Griffiths & Soruç, 2020; Skehan, 1991).

IDs are significant to successful language learning. For language teachers, being able to recognize learner differences can result in better development of materials, teaching style, instructional strategies, and giving feedback. Teachers are required to provide options for an optimal learning environment for different learners (Griffiths &

Soruç, 2020). In addition, during the pandemic of COVID-19, the significance of IDs has been raised since the learning environment has been changed to online settings, and learners are obligated to stay focused on the learning process on their own. A wide range of studies were conducted to explore learners’ language learning strategies, autonomy, self-regulation, self-efficacy, personality, and motivation in the context.

2.1 Language Learning Strategies

Learning strategies are a part of IDs. The term, learning strategies, has been variously defined by numerous researchers. The language learning strategies are plans of action selected by learners to pursue and get to the purpose of language learning through experience and study (Griffiths & Soruç, 2020; Oxford, 2017). However, there are dimensions of variation under this term. The question, what a learning strategy is comprised of, was raised by several researchers (Ellis, 2015). Nevertheless, the learning strategies are considered effective and lead to successful language learning. As stated by Griffiths and Soruç (2020), the studies of Green and Oxford (1995) and Griffiths (2003) agreed and confirmed that learning strategies do have a strong correlation with successful language learning.

2.2 Agency

Agency is also a major construct leading to the achievement of language learning. The construct was seen as a means to successful social transformation. Agency is the ability of learners to decide, manage, and proceed to the goals (Brown, 2015).

Learners with a high level of agency have the ability to control their path of life. Agency has influenced language learning processes for over a few decades. Learners were considered as agents who knew their behaviors and actions and were able to control their

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learning process. Learners acquire their agency when they develop their cognitive and linguistic abilities. The abilities permitted them to operate autonomously. Other principles and constructs including motivation in second language acquisition were framed by the Principle of Agency, the act of choice-making in the acts of self-determination (Brown, 2015).

2.3 Autonomy

Autonomy is also taken into account as one of the IDs. Autonomy in learning is concerned with learners’ pursuit of knowledge out of their needs or interests.

Holec (1979) described learner autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning.” Learner autonomy consists of several elements: “determining the objectives, defining the contents and progressions, selecting methods and techniques, monitoring the procedure of acquisitions, and evaluating what has been acquired.” Furthermore, Gathercole (1990) defined it as the learners’ capability of taking charge of learning.

Independence was mentioned as an important part of learner autonomy as learners should have the ability to select their own goals, means, learning styles, materials, and tasks. Numerous studies and research were conducted to investigate further on the topic of learner autonomy. Autonomy has been found to have benefits when learning a foreign language (Teng, 2019).

Autonomy is a substantial factor in the language learning process, especially when it occurs in an unfamiliar environment such as an online setting. The importance of autonomy in the online environment was raised in the work of Lee, Pate, and Cozart (2015). It is pointed out that autonomy support is a strategy to improve online students’ motivation and engagement. Learners with autonomy are aware of the sense of ownership and responsibility and show behavioral and cognitive engagement.

2.4 Self-regulation

The concept of self-regulation is often involved when mentioning the learner factors. “Self-regulation is one of the key learner strength factors” (Oxford, 2017).

The focus of self-regulation is on the systematic regulating behaviors and thoughts. Self- regulation consists of several strategies including “goal-setting; focusing on instruction;

organizing, coding, and rehearsing information; managing time and the environment;

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using resources effectively; monitoring performance; and seeking assistance” (Oxford, 2017). The most important strategy goes to goal-setting. Oxford (2017) noted that self- regulation is a goal-driven process. Learners attempt to manage and control their efforts to reach their goals. In addition, Oxford (2017) also pointed out that learners with self- regulation frequently show self-efficacy. The aspect that self-regulation and self-efficacy is the desire to achieve goals.

2.5 Self-efficacy

Apart from self-regulation, another construct influencing successful language learning is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the perception of people’s capabilities to perform actions with confidence in order to achieve the goals (Oxford, 2017). Self- efficacy has been studied and believed to relate to learners’ success in learning. Learners with high self-efficacy participated persistently in learning while learners with low self- efficacy tended to participate less as they believed they did not own the ability to accomplish (Brown, 2015).

The significance of self-efficacy should be acknowledged as now the learning environment has altered from the traditional in-class setting to an online setting.

Successful language learning is highly dependent on the learner’s persistence. Many scholars have condcted research to explore online learning self-efficacy. According to the work of Shen, Cho, Tsai, and Marra (2013), self-efficacy was found to be a predictor of learners’ online learning satisfaction. Prior, Mazanov, Meacheam, Heaslip, and Hanson (2016) also studied the effects of self-efficacy on online learning behaviors. The results of the study suggested that there are positive effects of self-efficacy on learners’ behaviors in an online setting. Moreover, another study on self-efficacy in an online setting was conducted. Hanham, Lee, and Teo (2021) found that self-efficacy has a positive relationship with academic achievement.

2.6 Personality

Personality, as one of the IDs, has long been explored as it has been expected to be an essential part of language learning (Dewaele, 2012; Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015; Griffiths & Soruç, 2020). Personality has been described as “those aspects of an individual’s behavior, attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, actions, and feelings which are seen as

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typical and distinctive of that person” by Richards and Schmidt (2010) and “a relatively stable, unchanging and enduring characteristic, rather than transient, which therefore helps to make reasonably accurate predictions about future attitudes and behavior and about what individuals feel, think or behave in particular situations” by Griffiths and Soruç (2020).

Several studies are attempting to investigate the correlation between personality and academic achievement. Personality was found to be a powerful modifying variable in educational research. The use of personality factors is an independent variable in research studies. An adequate amount of evidence was provided in past research that personality factors are associated with the learning process in general and in SLA (Dörnyei, 2005).

Personality also plays an important role when the learning process occurs in an online setting. Shih, Chen, Chen, and Wey (2013) suggested in their paper that personalities influence learner motivation and satisfaction in an online English learning setting. The result of their study suggested that the two traits, extraversion, and conscientiousness, of the Big Five personality traits, were the important traits in predicting motivation and satisfaction. According to the study, more interactive lessons emphasizing on learners’ personality traits are required in order to boost learners’ motivation and satisfaction.

2.7 Motivation

Motivation receives abundant attention as a part of IDs. Studies of motivation have been conducted in the field of psycholinguistics in L2 learning. It was considered a basic and crucial construct leading to successful L2 learning. Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) defined motivation as the construct that influences an individual to perform an action, make decisions or devote their effort in action. Motivation involves the choice of action, the persistence with the action, the effort devoted to it. As mentioned in their previous work, Dörnyei and Ottó provided the definition of L2 motivation as “In a general sense, motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and evaluates the

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cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and desires are selected, prioritized, operationalized and (successfully or unsuccessfully) acted out” (Dörnyei &

Ushioda, 2011) while Saville-Troike (2012) defined motivation as the learners’ effort made during their L2 development.

From the viewpoint of behaviorism, motivation is referred to as the anticipation of reinforcement. Learners were motivated by the anticipated reward.

According to the self-determination theory, motivation was described as the construct coming from the inside and generated by the learners, not from the outer influences (Brown, 2015).

While motivation has been widely studied for a long time, its counterpart, the concept of demotivation has recently come to researchers’ attention. Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) described demotivation as negative influences that nullify existing motivation. L2 demotivation is defined as external and internal factors affecting the diminishing motivation of a target language learning by Song and Kim (2017). Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011) conducted a study interviewing 50 secondary school students and identified nine types of demotivation factors. The essential influence found in the research was from teacher-related factors. Clare, Renandya, and Rong (2019) revealed a similar result in their research. The students’ demotivation was affected by two main factors:

teacher-related influences and learner-related influences. This represents the fact that the construct such as motivation can grow less.

After decades of exploration and investigation, the interest in motivation has faded and slowly come to a halt. However, the attempt to seek and search for other constructs affecting L2 learning remains. Many scholars convert and expand their attention to newly proposed constructs.

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3. Grit

3.1 Definition of grit

Grit is known as a non-cognitive personality. It is important to note that the key concept of grit involves two concepts which are perseverance and passion.

Duckworth et al. (2007) defined grit as a combination of perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Grit was described as a non-cognitive trait. The concept of perseverance was defined as the tendency to dedicate energy to a particular goal. Consistency of interest is characterized as long-term consistency of interest for an aim without losing attention to that goal regardless of difficulty and failure (Duckworth et al., 2007). A long- term goal must be meaningful and engaging. The term ‘consistency of interest’ can be used interchangeably with the term ‘passion’ by Duckworth and Quinn (2009). Both facets of grit result in success. Perseverance of effort is responsible for achievement despite hardship and consistency of interest involves with the process of successful achievement (Christopoulou, Lakioti, Pezirkianidis, Karakasidou, & Stalikas, 2018).

Many people with highly successful profiles from different backgrounds e.g., professions, and ages have been interviewed in order to study the factor determining people’s achievement i.e., grit. Many studies indicated that grit was a necessary personality trait leading to achievement. People who had higher grit trended to be more successful. Grit was found to overlap with achievement aspects of conscientiousness in the Big Five model. The difference is that grit is emphasized more in long-term determination than short-term intense effort. People who had grit work continually towards the long-term and higher-order goal meanwhile maintaining effort and intention in the particular goal over a long period of time even though they had to face difficulties and failures along the way. Grit is also different from the dependability aspects of conscientiousness in self-control. Grit focuses on not only the ability to control oneself but also consistent goals and interests (Credé, Tynan, & Harms, 2017; Duckworth et al., 2007).

The concept of grit was confirmed through a series of studies conducted by Duckworth et al. (2007). The instrument, a scale, was developed to determine individuals’ grit. Duckworth et al. (2007) devised a self-report measure of grit known as

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the Grit Scale and implemented it in their studies. The 12 items scale was divided into two parts. The first part ‘Consistency of Interests’ consisted of 6 items and the second part

‘Perseverance of Effort’ contained 6 items. The two factors were correlated at r = .45 and the Grit Scale indicated high internal consistency (α = .85). According to their analysis, the two factors were predictive of outcomes equally in most cases. When considering them separately, each factor showed less predictive value. (Duckworth et al., 2007).

Duckworth and Quinn (2009) conducted further studies to develop the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S). In the series of studies, they revised the Original Grit Scale (Grit- O), the 12-item scale, and generated a better version of the Grit Scale called the Grit-S scale. The Grit-S scale contained 4 fewer items. Additionally, they improved the psychometric properties of the scale. Grit-S scale measured the 2 factors which were consistency of Interest and perseverance of Effort. In the studies, confirmatory factor analyses were applied and the results showed that grit is a second-order latent factor.

Both facets demonstrated moderate internal consistency and were found to be strongly intercorrelated. According to their research, the Grit-S scale was found to be a more economical measure than the Grit-O. Moreover, as the items were reduced, the predictive validity was not dropped (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009).

Figure 2 Grit-O scale and Grit-S scale comparison

Grit-O

Consistency of Interest 6 items

Perseverance of Effort 6 items

Grit-S

Consistency of Interest 4 items

Perseverance of Effort 4 items

Revised

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In 2020, Teimouri et al. (2020) proposed another grit scale called the L2 grit scale developed from Grit-O by Duckworth et al. (2007). The L2 grit scale was specifically developed to measure grit in the context of L2 learning. The scale was developed and tested for its reliability and validity. Due to item-total correlation analysis, some of the items in the L2 grit scale were removed. Only nine items on the scale remained. The result of the reliability test suggested that the instrument was internally consistent.

The models of grit scale that the researcher adopted to collect data in this research came from the combination of 2 grit scales, the Grit-O scale of Duckworth et al.

(2007) and the L2 Grit scale of Teimouri et al. (2020). The Grit-O scale, consisting of 12 items, was selected to be used in this research due to its ability to measure learners’ grit precisely. However, the Grit-O scale was designed to measure the general domain of grit while the L2 grit scale was specifically developed to measure learners’ grit in language learning. On the other hand, the L2 grit scale consisted of only 9 items. Hence, the researcher decided to combine the 2 scales to develop the 12-item scale that is able to measure learners’ grit in language learning precisely.

3.2 Grit in the field of education

The interest in grit has increased in the field of education. Grit has a wide range of positive aspects in the field of education. Several studies found a connection between grit and academic performance such as GPAs, SAT scores, and other positive educational outcomes. Grit has also been found an acceptable predictor regarding retention in education (Christopoulou et al., 2018).

Duckworth et al. (2007) found that learners with higher grit have higher grades and scores on tests. Grit, therefore, was believed to be able to predict learners’

success. Duckworth et al. (2007) conducted research on students at the University of Pennsylvania to observe their newly proposed construct, grit. The finding suggested that students with higher levels of grit have higher academic performance. Both GPAs and SAT scores were found to be correlated to grit scores. Another research study was conducted at West Point, U.S. military academy Duckworth et al. (2007). The construct,

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grit predicted the success of students at the school. Students who obtained higher scores on the grit scale were able to survive the whole course.

3.3 Criticism of grit

The researcher must acknowledge that some people do not wholly accept the view. Most research considers grit as a two-factor construct. However, Credé et al.

(2017) analyzed the two facets separately and conducted a meta-analysis. Their study showed that there was a moderate correlation between grit, learning performance and retention and it was found that grit was strongly correlated with conscientiousness. The study revealed that the facet, the perseverance of effort demonstrated variance in academic performance and has stronger criterion validities than the other facet, the consistency of interest. Credé et al. (2017) stated in the research that the grit construct may be dependent on the perseverance of effort primarily. Consistent with the studies of Bowman, Hill, Denson, and Bronkema (2015), Muenks, Wigfield, Yang, and O'Neal (2017), and Wolters and Hussain (2015), grit was found to be a stronger predictor when compared to the other facet, consistency of interest.

However, the results from the studies of Duckworth and Quinn (2009) reported otherwise. Duckworth & Quinn found that the two-factor structure of grit is a second-order latent factor. With confirmatory factor analyses, both perseverance of effort and consistency of interest were found to be strongly intercorrelated and demonstrated internal consistency (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009).

Moreover, a study was conducted in order to study the importance of the construct, grit. Strayhorn (2014) collected data by the Grit-S scale to determine the role of grit in the academic success of Black male students in White institutions. The results of the research suggested that the relationship between grit and academic outcomes is positive. In addition, the finding also supported that grit has the ability to predict achievement in challenging domains. It was found in the study that Black males with a higher level of grit earned higher grades.

Another study on university students was conducted. Broghammer (2017) investigated the non-cognitive variable, grit as a predictor of the grade point average of

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first-year college students. Grit-S was applied as the instrument in the research. The results of the research indicated that grit scores were positively related to GPA.

In accordance with Strayhorn, grit was found to be positively associated with academic performance, resilience, and well-being. Lin and Chang (2017) studied the non-cognitive trait, grit of high school students in Taiwan. The findings of the research were consistent with the previous research. Grittier students were found to have greater academic performance and academic satisfaction. Furthermore, Hodge, Wright, and Bennett (2018) carried out a study to analyze the role of grit in a university setting by measuring the grit, engagement, and academic productivity of Australian university students. The result of the study revealed that both perseverance of effort and consistency of interest directly affected engagement, and productivity.

The relationship between the success of L2 learners and grit has been studied in recent years especially in the field of applied linguistics. Lee and Lee (2019) conducted research on the relationship between affective factors and L2 willingness to communicate in in-class out-of-class, and online settings. According to the finding, grit among other affective factors was found to be a significant predictor of students’ L2 willingness to communicate. The result of a study revealed that learners who are grittier tended to have put more effort and time into learning English (Lake, 2013). Grit was also found positively correlated and a predictor of, the English language performance of non- English speaking students in China (Wu, Foong, & Alias, 2022).

3.4 Related research

Most related research on L2 grit (Gyamfi & Lai, 2020; Teimouri et al., 2020;

Wei et al., 2020) exhibits similar results in that there was a positive relationship between L2 learners’ grit and learners’ language achievement.

Teimouri et al. (2020) developed the L2 Grit scale to explore its effectiveness and investigate the link between L2 grit and learners’ language achievement. The scale was implemented on the participants of Persian L2 learners. The finding suggested that the newly developed L2 grit scale has both reliability and validity

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and learners who have L2 grit tend to be more enthusiastic. Therefore, L2 grit was proposed that it related to L2 development.

The study of Wei et al. (2020) was a replication of the research of Teimouri in a different context, the Chinese EFL context. L2 grit scale proposed by Teimouri et al.

was employed as the instrument on Chinese EFL learners. The results of the study confirmed the high reliability and validity of the scale as reported in the original research of Teimouri. The results also suggested that Chinese English-knowing multilinguals with high proficiency in English have high L2 grit. In addition, other links among L2 grit (for instance, multilingualism, L2 joy, age, and gender) were found in the study.

Another study was conducted regarding grit in L2 learners in the Thai EFL context (Gyamfi & Lai, 2020). Gyamfi and Lai (2020) designed a scale adjusted from grit scales of Duckworth’s to investigate Thai EFL students’ grit and factors influencing their grit. The participants of the study are English major students who are considered to have high language achievement. The results suggested a similar outcome to the previous works in that their participants’ grit was at an above-moderate level. Moreover, the study found that there were two types of influences: situational and personality influences affecting students’ grit. The researchers also highlighted the necessity of improving the level of learners’ grit.

4. Learner Engagement

The concept of learner engagement has drawn the attention of scholars in the field of education including language teaching and learning as engagement is claimed to be positively related to levels of academic achievement (Fredricks et al., 2004). The significance of engagement has been previously pointed out, especially in the current online environment, where learners are physically distant from their teachers and their peers (Dixson, 2015).

4.1 Definition of learner engagement

Several researchers and scholars attempted to define the term, engagement. Fredricks et al. (2004) referred to engagement as the idea of commitment and investment. Engagement is seen as the time, energy, thought, and effort that learners

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put into their learning (Dixson, 2015). Barkley (2010) suggested a similar definition of engagement as “a process and a product that is experienced on a continuum and results from the synergistic interaction between motivation and active learning.”

Engagement is a construct comprised of 3 components: behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement. Even though each component differs in the aspects of intensity and duration, the three dimensions of engagement partly overlap (Zhao, 2018). Behavioral engagement refers to the participation and involvement of learners in both academic and social activities. The second component of learner engagement was emotional engagement which refers to learners’ reactions to their teachers, peers, and content which can be either positive or negative. Finally, cognitive engagement refers to the thoughtfulness and willingness to attempt to become proficient at learning (Fredricks et al., 2004).

Behavioral engagement concerns learners’ behaviors, principally in terms of participation and involvement in both academic and social activities. Behavioral engagement consists of three characteristics including i) positive conducts e.g. following the rules and not showing signs of disruptive behaviors, ii) involvement in learning and behaviors such as attention, intention, persistence and concentration, and iii) participation in extracurricular activities (Fredricks et al., 2004).

Emotional engagement relates to learners’ affective reactions such as fear, satisfaction, interest, boredom, and anxiety. Emotional engagement can be assessed by examining learners’ attitudes, emotions, and preferences towards the school, teachers, and tasks. Emotions such as interest and value are included as a part of this construct and interestingly overlap with constructs in motivational research.

However, these emotions are less intricate than the constructs in motivational research (Fredricks et al., 2004).

Cognitive engagement can be perceived from two different dimensions.

The first view focuses on psychological investment in learning and can be described as a need to accomplish more than the set standard and the affection for challenges.

Fredricks et al. (2004) summarized the conceptualization of cognitive engagement as

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“flexibility in problem-solving, preference for hard work, and positive coping in the face of failure.” Fredricks et al. (2004) further discussed the second view of cognitive engagement in terms of learning strategies. It was suggested that cognitively engaged learners are inclined to use deep strategies. With deep strategies, the learners can make more mental effort, connect ideas, and accomplish greater comprehension. Fredricks et al. (2004) noted that the term “effort” appears in the context of both cognitive and behavioral engagement; however, definitions differ. From the point of view of behavioral engagement, effort refers simply to the attempt to do the work, whereas effort, as defined in cognitive engagement, is concentrating on learning and mastering the material (Fredricks et al., 2004).

4.2 Measuring behavioral engagement

To measure behavioral engagement, several measuring methods have been applied. Fredricks et al. (2004) suggested that behavioral engagement can be measured by for example, teacher ratings and self-report surveys. The indicators often appear in many measuring instruments including work involvement, attention, effort, participation, and persistence. As summarized in the work of Fredricks et al. (2004), many researchers selected to measure both positive and negative behaviors. For positive behaviors, indicators are completing assignments and following school rules. The behaviors such as the frequency of absences and disturbing other classmates are reported as indicative of disengagement.

4.3 Measuring emotional engagement

Self-report surveys appear to be the most common method used in measuring emotional engagement. Most items on the scales were designed to relate to a variety of emotions connected to school, school tasks, classmates and teachers. Words related to both positive and negative emotions such as delight, unhappiness, boredom, anger, and frustration often appear in the emotional engagement scale. In some research, emotional engagement was measured through students’ work orientation and their orientation toward school. Frequently, the scales for measuring emotional engagement are combined with the scales for measuring behavioral engagement (Fredricks et al., 2004).

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4.4 Measuring cognitive engagement

In order to measure cognitive engagement as a psychological investment in learning, numerous researchers have proposed methods to assess the construct.

Fredricks et al. (2004) summarized several concepts and theories applied in measuring cognitive engagement. In the work of Connell and Wellborn, assessment of cognitive engagement included problem solving skill, favor for hard work, independent learning styles, and abilities to handle perceived failure and some of the items overlap with the concept of intrinsic motivation. Apart from that, there was another concept applied in measuring a psychological investment in learning. Goal theory was adopted as a method to measure cognitive engagement. The items on the scale concern being committed to understanding the work. Furthermore, Nystrand and Gamoran selected to measure cognitive engagement or as referred to in their work, substantive engagement by assessing the quality of instructional discourse in the context of classrooms (Fredricks et al., 2004).

In measuring engagement, self-report survey measures are commonly chosen as a method to assess learner engagement. Especially in measuring cognitive engagement, self-report methods are considered useful as cognitive engagement cannot be directly observed (Fredricks & McColskey, 2012). The instrument used in the study of Fredricks et al. (2004) was designed to assess learners’ goals, metacognition, and effort control.

4.5 Importance of learner engagement to online learning

The nature of online learning settings differs from the traditional in-class setting. Online courses are influenced by technological and digital development. In online learning, learners and teachers are physically distant and the teaching and learning process occurs on the online platforms, oftentimes resulting in a lack of interaction.

However, it is reported that interaction plays an important role in learners’ motivation and success in online learning settings (Alhih, Ossiannilsson, & Berigel, 2017). It is also pointed out that strong methodology and a sufficient number of opportunities for learners to interact with their teachers and peers are required in order to succeed in online courses

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(Marcia, 2012). Therefore, the concept of engagement is suggested to be a factor towards success in online learning.

In order to raise the level of engagement, Dixson (2015) conducted a study to investigate student engagement. It was found that students participating in learning activities were significantly more engaged than students who did not. Learning activities that require interaction from both learner-to-learner and teacher-to-learner, for instance, application activities, discussion forums, and group projects, are proposed to be necessary as a part of learner engagement leading to success in online learning. It is confirmed in the work of Dixson (2015) that engagement strategies are crucial in online learning.

Learner engagement has received much attention from scholars and has been explored in the field of EFL. Dincer, Yeşilyurt S., Noels, and Vargas Lascano (2019) studied the learner engagement of Turkish EFL students and found that engagement was a predictor of achievement in English courses. The importance of learner engagement was also highlighted in the work of Han (2021) who found that learners’ language achievement depends on learner engagement.

4.6 Related research

Learner engagement has been widely studied especially in the field of language learning. Lei, Cui, and Zhou (2018) conducted research to study the relationship between learner engagement and their academic achievement. They found that learner engagement was strongly and positively correlated to their academic achievement.

Moreover, all of the three components of learner engagement: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive were found positively correlated to academic achievement.

In the context of Thai EFL, Mohandas and Vinitwatanakhun (2020) conducted a study on learner engagement. According to their study, Thai students who participated in the study showed a high level of engagement. High levels of engagement were shown in these elements: class attendance, punctuality, and an interest in learning English.

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5. English Learning in Online Setting

Online learning refers to the effort to provide access to learning through technology medium. Online learning was proposed as an improved version of distance learning (Moore, Dickson-Deane, & Galyen, 2011). Technology has become a big part of the English language learning process. The coming of technology has revolutionized many aspects of English teaching and learning.

Several teaching approaches and methods are influenced by the new technology. Numerous technology-related methods have been applied and studied widely (Han & Yin, 2021; Kurucova, Medová, & Tirpakova, 2018; Tan, 2015). E-learning websites, blended learning modes, and multimedia teaching platforms are examples of language teaching methods that were reported to have significance to learners’ language achievement. Most of the research suggested the positive aspects of technology in the language learning process and indicated similar results that with the ability to utilize technology properly by both teachers and learners, there is a high tendency for the language learning process to be successful.

Technology not only changes the ways of teaching and learning but also affects the learning environment. As nowadays the world encounters a sudden change due to the pandemic, the traditional strategies of teaching and learning in schools can be no longer applicable. The importance of technology arises. The learning environment of an ordinary actual classroom is shifted into a virtual classroom. Teaching and learning English in the online environment are explored and investigated by many scholars (Cheung, 2021b; O'Dowd, 2021). The effectiveness of synchronous online English lessons using a video-conferencing tool was found positive in the study of Cheung (2021b).

Teachers are able to manage to utilize the affordances of the video-conferencing tool effectively and learners show remarkable interactional skills during the lessons.

However, some of the concerns regarding learning online have been pointed out. According to the work of Maqableh and Alia (2021), online learning affects learners’

learning experiences and satisfaction. Sun (2014) also studied learner perspectives on online language learning and the participants in the study reported that they confronted

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many major difficulties such as time management, collaboration with classmates, maintaining engagement, and upholding motivation. Apart from that, Lin, Zheng, and Zhang (2017a) found in their study that learners’ interactions, especially learner-content interaction, affected their satisfaction and perceived progress in online language courses.

Furthermore, research on learners’ interaction and engagement can be found continuously (Cheung, 2021a; Li, Sun, & Jee, 2019). Most of the research suggested that the online setting directly affects learners in many dimensions. Li et al. (2019) conducted research on learners’ interaction and found that educational technology reduced the potential to engage in the oral production of learners and gave learners fewer chances of practicing target language in a communicative context. These factors such as lack of involvement, lack of engagement, and technology-related difficulties are often mentioned in several studies. Cheung (2021a) mentioned potential obstacles that influence the language learning process. Learners’ attention would be affected by the short concentration span and low selective attention skills of young learners. Learners can misuse the devices for other purposes, for example, playing games, or listening to music.

Another challenge is the surrounding environment. Learners receive distractions from the surroundings e.g., television sounds. These factors are beyond the control of teachers.

This means the responsibility goes to the learners.

In recent studies about online language learning, learner factors have been frequently mentioned. Learners’ learning strategies, self-efficiency, self-regulation, and readiness have been widely explored (Hromalik & Koszalka, 2018; Jiang, Meng, & Zhou, 2021; Li et al., 2019; Lin, Zheng, & Zhang, 2017b; Panigrahi, Srivastava, & Sharma, 2018;

Yantraprakorn, Darasawang, & Wiriyakarun, 2018). Most of the research pointed in the same direction that learner factors such as learning strategies, self-efficiency, and self- regulation are necessary in the online learning process as they can determine the success of online language learning (Panigrahi et al., 2018).

Jiang et al. (2021) studied the readiness of learners for online flipped learning. It was reported that the factor, technology competence, is not the problematic issue for the language learning process; the concerns lie with the issues of teaching

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method preference and communication self-efficacy. The research also found that learners with a positive preference towards online learning are less inclined to suffer from anxiety, self-sabotage, and disengagement.

In consistency with the work of Hromalik and Koszalka (2018), the results of the study highlighted the importance of self-regulation learning strategies in the online setting as it was suggested in the study that learners with a higher achievement on presentational speaking tasks possessed different self-regulated learning strategies.

Wang, Shannon, and Ross (2013) also found similar results in their study that self- regulated learning is predictive of learning outcomes and satisfaction in the online setting.

It was also suggested in the study that with effective learning strategies, learners are able to increase their level of motivation toward online courses. Furthermore, the significance of learning strategies in online learning was indicated in the study of Lin et al. (2017b).

The results of the research suggested that the use of online learning strategies is a predictor of learners’ online learning outcomes. The learners who adopted learning strategies in online language learning had higher final grades.