2.3 Theoretical Framework
2.3.4 Deci & Ryan’s Self-determination Theory (SDT) of Motivation
Historically, our urge to control or environment and the concept of competence motivation was explained by White in the year 1959. In the later years, the importance of one’s self-actualization needs being expressed after our basic needs were fulfilled, comprising the gratification of curiosity, creative methods of self-expression, and other skills development, were explained well by Maslow (Brophy, 2010). With evolution of motivational theories over time, the balancing of learner engagement with a task for meaning rather than expectation led to the progress of the concept of intrinsic motivation
63 during the 1990s (Brophy, 2010). A recent perspective on the extrinsic-intrinsic motivation that differentiated between autonomous and controlled motivation based on the origin of student behaviours was provided by Deci & Ryan’s self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
The goals of educators are to create an aspirational environment where students are appropriately engaged at schools and display self-regulated learning behaviours.
Extrinsically motivated students work towards achieving outcomes that are discernible from the task itself, and these could be high grades, pleasing teachers or parents and other external benefits. In contrast, learners that are motivated intrinsically enjoy the task and display meaningful engagement on most occasions (Brophy, 2010). During the 1990s, prominent scholars like Ryan, Grolnick, and Connell explained that learner self- regulation involved the advancement of learner engagement from dependence on external incentives towards intrinsic satisfaction with the learning process itself (Brophy, 2010).
Owing to curriculum demands, it may be impossible for teachers to plan for daily tasks to be matched to learner’s prevailing intrinsic motivation levels. Brophy (2010) recommended few useful strategies including classroom management styles and teaching methods to enhance the student’s learning needs, developing learning tasks that would be intrinsically rewarding for students, along with adapting the activities or tasks to make it appealing to learners. While few intrinsic motivation theories focused on the affective facets of learner engagement in terms of enjoyment or fun, other theories concentrated on the cognitive traits including empowering, enriching, self-actualising, and meaningful engagement. However, most eminent theorists converged on the aspect of learner control,
64 directing that for intrinsic motivation to be advanced in students, their actions must be experienced as self-determined by them (Brophy, 2010).
Further research on this self-determination attribute that centered on the social environment, which either accelerated or decelerated learner motivation and vigorous psychological growth, was undertaken by Richard Ryan and Edward Deci. These scholars converged on the aspects that affected self-regulation, wellbeing, and intrinsic motivation which in turn steered the proposition of the three distinctive psychological wants of competence, relatedness, and autonomy and their importance in the field of education (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The self-determination theory (SDT) put forth by Deci and Ryan enthused many researchers to focus on the value facets of educational motivation (Brophy, 2010). Since the current study used the SDT, the following sections explain this theory in detail.
Deci & Ryan investigated learner’s innate growth predispositions and inherent psychological wants, which formed the core of their personality development and self- motivation, alongside the social conditions that could positively influence this progression. They explained that the nature of motivation involved perseverance, energy, decisiveness, and direction, and since motivation led to positive outcomes from students, its study has been of great significance to all educators. Deci and Ryan explored the differences between external control and intrinsic motivation along with the factors that affected learning behaviours in terms of wellbeing, performance, and experience at any given time. They postulated a suite of guiding principles for each category of motivation and presented a differentiated approach to learner motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000), as represented further.
65 Figure 2.15: Self-Determination Continuum (Deci & Ryan 2000, p. 72)
The SDT provided an alternate and abstruse view of motivation, presenting it as an evolving characteristic. This motivational theory explained that while the learning process could be controlled externally, the objective of education was to develop learner self-regulation. In other words, the student should move away from heteronomy towards autonomy in knowledge acquisition for the joy of the learning progression intrinsically (Brophy, 2010). To reiterate, Deci and Ryan recognised three psychological desires of autonomy, relatedness, and competence as elementary, global, and comprehensively affecting goal-oriented behaviours. They explained that if these three basic needs were satisfied, the learner’s sense of self-perception would reflect their interests or what they considered important and lead to learner autonomy. The SDT broadly explained how cultural and societal factors influence student behaviours and motivation. This meta-
66 theory could be applied to various settings like the classroom, various organisations and groups, families, and diverse cultural and social settings.
The SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000) consists of six mini theories discussed in brief in the subsequent sections herewith and illustrated as shown in figure 2.16 below.
Figure 2.16: Self-Determination Theory of Motivation (illustrated based on Deci &
Ryan 2000, p. 71)
• Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)
This mini theory addressed the influences of social environment including ego- attachments, rewards, and interpersonal factors on learner’s interest and intrinsic motivation. CET also explained the importance of autonomy and competence in advancing intrinsic motivation in the field of education.
Self-Determination Theory of Motivation (SDT)
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) : Effects of social context on intrinsic
motivation
Organismic Integration Theory (OIT): Various forms of extrinsic motivation
Causality Orientations Theory (COT): Individual differences towards
environments
Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT):
Psychological health and well-being Goal Contents Theory (GCT): Influence
of extrinsic & intrinsic motivation on motivation
Relationships Motivation Theory (RMT):
Development of relationships that help maintain autonomy
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• Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)
The second mini theory focused on the numerous forms of extrinsic motivation along with their causes, characteristics, and consequences. OIT explored the traits of different types of behaviours ranging from integration, identification, introjection to external controls that could be trailing along the internalization continuum. Any enhancement of learner internalization would automatically lead to the desired effect of increased autonomous behaviours.
• Casualty Orientations Theory (COT)
Individual differences in students while adapting to their environments and their correlation to their behaviour regulation were described by this mini theory. COT further explained all three casualty orientations, namely,
o Autonomy orientation where a student valued the learning and acted out of self-interest.
o Control orientation explained the effects of gains, rewards, and approvals.
o Amotivated orientation portrayed by self-doubts regarding one’s competence.
• Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT)
This mini theory expanded on the changed psychological wants and their correlation to the learner’s wellbeing and psychological health. BPNT elaborated on the influences of culture and cross developmental situations on motivation.
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• Goal Contents Theory (GCT)
The fifth mini theory developed from the differences among extrinsic factors including appearance, financial background, and fame and intrinsic objectives including social relations and personal growth along with their control over wellbeing and motivation.
• Relationships Motivation Theory (RMT)
Lastly, this mini theory described the significance of close relationships and the feeling of belonging to any community with the suggestion that excellent partners encourage the progress of competence, relatedness, and autonomy desires of the other.
The SDT recommends strategies to promote learner autonomy by providing them with periodic opportunities to make individual choices in their learning environment while linking tasks to their individual areas of interests. Similarly, student competence can be advanced by ensuring that the expected task is consistent with the abilities and knowledge gained, offers prospects for active responses while giving immediate feedback, and integrates game-based learning tasks that would lead to development of various skills, alongside handing authentic tasks that can be independently managed from beginning to end. Lastly, the pupil relatedness could be enhanced by maintaining a collaborative classroom, promoting positive peer relations, close interactions with families and strong teacher-student relations (Brophy, 2010). To summarise, the Self-determination Theory provided an extensive framework for learner motivation and personality. When learners become autonomous, they can achieve goals commensurate with their high potential (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
69 To summarise the selection of the above theories for this study, using a single IQ construct to identify the students with gifts and talents was considered a narrow viewpoint and disregarded by experts. Several alternatives like the Gardner’s MI theory and Renzulli’s 3-ring conception that utilised several intelligences were well established and researched.
Gagné’s DGMT provided interesting facets of environment that could support progression of learning in gifted students along with the perceptions of growth of talents and gifts within the learner (Ziegler, 2005). Also, Ziegler criticized that prior research on gifted education proposed to explicate effective actions in particular domains rather than conducting empirical studies on the in-depth analysis of expected actions in learners demonstrating excellence. Ziegler proposed the Actiotope Model of Giftedness that involved analytic study of numerous variables including the environmental aspects, interactions between constituents, alongside the feedback loops into the process (Ziegler, 2005). His theoretical model was focused on actions and not traits, the unique journey of everyone, and the complicated system of development offered a new perspective on giftedness. His systemic approach is worth being used for further research within the local context by a quantitative expert.
For the purposes of this study, the theoretical framework used with the rationale is explained above and the conceptual framework applying these theories to the current study is presented in the next section of the thesis.