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advance vocational behaviours both directly and indirectly via the mediating effects on individual goals. According to many theories, to a certain extent, behaviour is instigated by goals. However, specific quality of or kinds of goals particularly facilitate an action. In other words, individuals are motivated to change their goals to actions in cases where goals are definite, unambiguous, and in line with their values (Ajzen 1988). Self-efficacy can also have a direct relation with outcomes, which in our case is occupational commitment, due to the effect it has on assisting the individual to organize actions and persist in the face of obstacles (Lent & Brown 2013).
These personal cognitive factors function along with contextual influences such as social support from managers, peers, or family members. They may facilitate or constrain career behaviour. Contextual supporters and barriers function through many paths. They can directly affect goals and actions or moderate the relations between the two (Lent et al. 2000). They can indirectly affect goals through their relations with self-efficacy and outcome expectations (Sheu et al. 2010). Thus, the existence of supporters may enhance self-efficacy and outcome expectations.
Contextual influences can affect occupational commitment directly and indirectly through the pathway from actions. This is discussed in more details in the section on role models.
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the idea of self-regulatory efficacy, that is the perceived capability to direct and motivate oneself to carry out self-improving actions such as studying, for example, despite difficult surrounding situations (Bandura 2006). Individuals possessing a high degree of coping efficacy are expected to persist towards their goals when faced with unfavourable environmental surroundings compared to individuals who believe they are incapable of facing expected obstructions. It is through his studies that Bandura (2006) stresses the significance of individuals’ belief about their capabilities in managing certain obstructions and barriers.
Researchers distinguish between coping efficacy and content-specific or task- efficacy. The latter has been defined as perceived ability to behave in a certain way necessary for success within a specific activity realm, under ideal, normal or undefined performance situations. Coping efficacy, however, depicts a person’s perceived ability to handle certain situational factors hindering or obscuring behaviour. For example, a student might believe she possesses substantial abilities in Science and Mathematics, however, she doubts her capabilities at enduring gender bias or unfriendly peer pressure related to STEM domains, both academically and in terms of career. The example displays the possibly complementing part of coping- efficacy compared to task-efficacy in facilitating behaviour and persistence at intricate skills in challenging settings. Several studies have investigated the mathematical and scientific aptitude of females and tried to establish a link between this aptitude and the under-representation of females in STEM. Recent studies indicate that both men and women tend to have similar learning aptitudes. However, the self-confidence of females during the early stages of schooling begins to influence their future career decisions (Morgan et al. 2013). The male-dominated environment of STEM occupations further intimidates them into refraining from working in these domains. Being able to cope under stressful situations is a crucial
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aspect concerning the occupational commitment of women in STEM. Females operating in male-dominated industries such as STEM have to cope with several challenging circumstances such as harassment, discrimination, unequal pay, gender biased promotion decisions, work assessment and inequitable allocation of work assignments that might lead to promotion, and finally the challenge of balancing work and life responsibilities due to long working hours. In a relatively recent study, Pinnington and Sandberg (2013) explain similar challenges that female lawyers in high ranking positions have to face as a numerically employed minority and under- represented group working in professional services firms.
Self-efficacy has been identified as the most crucial aspect of social cognitive theory (Bandura 1997). It has been defined as an individual’s confidence in her capabilities to perform certain acts or execute several related behaviours successfully. This aspect of SCCT is a high predictor of whether an individual will perform a certain act, persist at it, and finally succeed (Bandura 1997). There exist four sources of self- efficacy; namely, previous experiences; vicarious learning or observations; degrees of emotional arousal experiences, and persuasive messages. Individuals use these sources from their lived experiences to acquire information to appraise their self- efficacy (Bandura 2006). This indicates that self-efficacy does not function solely but rather interacts with environmental factors as well.
Sources of Self-efficacy:
Bandura’s self-efficacy theory attempts to clarify personal agency under a uniform conceptual framework, which depicts the sources of beliefs of human efficacy, the operations and formation of these beliefs, their operating mechanism, and their various effects (Bandura 1997). Perceived self-efficacy is defined in terms of convictions about one’s abilities to organize and execute required actions in specific situations (Bandrua in press). These beliefs affect individuals’ cognitive, emotional,
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and behavioural processing. This explains why self-efficacy is considered to be the primary and most prevalent aspect of personal agency.
Mastery experiences are deemed to have the strongest influence on self-efficacy where they provide the most accurate proof of whether an individual is able to successfully achieve a certain task (Gist 1989). Successful performances or actions help build a stronger self-efficacy, while unsuccessful ones weaken it. Mastery experience is a developmental process involving how the individual acquires the right tools to aid her direct her feelings, thinking, and motivation to develop and carry out necessary behaviour to handle her life circumstances. It is through barriers and challenges that the stamina of self-efficacy grows. Individuals achieving a quick and easy success will anticipate quick results, thus, they are easily demotivated when they fail. Facing difficulties and obstacles develops perseverance and teaches the individual that successful achievements do need effort (Bandura 2001). Such individuals learn to persist in the face of challenging situations and recover fast from failures.
Vicarious learning also aids in developing and increasing the sense of self-efficacy through social models (Bandura 1986). Being exposed to other similar individuals who can achieve success by facing an adverse environment heightens the viewer’s belief that she too can succeed (Schunk 1987). Similarly, seeing individuals fail although they put in strong efforts will diminish the observer’s self-efficacy and impair her motivation (Brown & Inouye 1978). The impact of role models on a person’s self-efficacy is related to the degree of similarity between the two perceived by the latter. The higher the perceived similarity, the stronger is the influence of the role model on the person’s self-efficacy. Role models are considered a social or occupational standard to which an employee benchmarks her own skills and capabilities. However, role models do more than that. They teach their protégé
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efficient skills and strategies to be able to administer contextual demands via their attitudes, actions, and verbal communication. Possessing such skills heightens the sense of strong self-efficacy. Observing role models persist amid obstacles and challenges is even more empowering for others than acquiring certain skills.
Social persuasion is a third way to influence and strengthen self-efficacy. When individuals are verbally convinced that they have the skills and competencies to perform a certain act, they feel more motivated towards achieving that task in comparison to a situation where they have doubts about their competencies and focus solely on their own deficiencies (Schunk 1987). Bandura (1997) notes that a successful efficacy facilitator not only discloses constructive evaluations but also attempts to construct situations for individuals so that they prompt their success.
They guide people to measure the success in terms of self-enhancement instead of victories over others.
While individuals depend on their sentimental and physiological states to assess their abilities, this aspect is considered the fourth source of self-efficacy. For example, when undergoing activities that need strength and endurance, individuals tend to assess their abilities by looking for signs of pain and weariness they are experiencing (Ewart 1992). Mood also plays a part in how individuals judge their capabilities where positive mood improves perceived self-efficacy (Kavanagh & Bower 1985).
Self-efficacy and Gender:
Due to the alarming under-representation of women in Science and Technology, Hacket & Bezt (1981) were pioneers in extending self-efficacy theory to vocational development, stressing occupational interests, and choices across genders. They propose that the under-representation of females in STEM fields may be due to low self-efficacy. After publication of their study, a string of research followed where
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some studies found that gender differences in career self-efficacy existed among university students in a diversified sample. These gender differences were also manifested across male and female dominated jobs at the level of specified occupations (Church et al. 1992). The vast body of literature reveals specific moderators in terms of gender differences in self-efficacy, probably among gender- stereotypical jobs where females struggle to achieve and develop their efficacy further or in which gender-role stressors negatively affect perceived efficacy (Betz
& Hacket 1983). On the other hand, a more neutral attitude towards gender-role and a considerable number of role models may improve occupational efficacy beliefs and widen the options of non-traditional jobs that females can choose from. The vast amount of research on self-efficacy and women in STEM explains that lack of confidence rather than academic or talent deficiency is the main reason why women are quitting STEM (Dawson et.al 2015). These problems further highlight the need to further investigate this cognitive variable in an attempt to understand its implications on females employed in male-dominated industries.
Self-Efficacy and Career Decision:
Career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) was proposed through the studies of Taylor &
Betz (1983) due to the apparent influence of self-efficacy on vocational performance, interests, and persistence. Many aspects of efficient occupational decision-making have been identified, such as job exploration, problem-solving abilities, goal setting, organizing abilities and representative self-assessment skills (Crites 1981). Some research verified that the CDSE scale differentiates among university students at three levels of career decidedness: those who affirmed their majors, those uncertain about them, and those who have not chosen yet (Taylor &
Popma 1990). Other prominent findings suggest that a low CDSE is related to apprehension over the choice making process (Matsui & Onglatco 1992); that liberal
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gender-role self-perception enhances strong self-efficacy for vocational decision processes, and more decisive women possessing stronger CDSE are more eager to participate in non-traditional occupations (Nevill & Schlecker 1988).
Some researchers have studied the relation between self-efficacy and career decision-making skills. Results show that career decision self-efficacy is negatively related to career indecision, positively correlated to peer support and career outcome expectations, and negatively correlated to career obstructions (Choi et al. 2011).
Others have researched self-efficacy and work search competences where self- efficacy positively correlates with job search activities and number of job offers obtained (Kanfer et al. 2001). A number of researchers also investigated the relation between self-efficacy and desire to attend college (Ali et al. 2005), work-family conflict (Cinamon 2006), training motivation (Colquitt et al. 2000), and organizational citizenship behaviour (Todd & Kent 2006). Results fall in line with previous research indicating a positive relation between self-efficacy and desire to attend college, training motivation and organizational citizenship behaviour.