IS Planning
IS planning has become an important issue for many managers. Due to the rapid changes in information technology, organizations are seeking to harness technol- ogy to help drive the business rather than the business being driven by informa- tion technology. IS plans are seen as a method of strategically positioning the organization in terms of its use and development of information technology. The plan includes broad directions for the technology platform, the network infra- structure, the software architecture, and the key data and processes of the busi- ness, and it identifies the IS/IT expertise and skills required by the organization.
Future project requests can be assessed from the perspective of whether they fall in line with the IS plan. This can reduce the danger of becoming sidetracked by projects that are not aligned with the organizational strategy and goals.
Feasibility Phase
A project is initiated as a result of a user request, a management initiative, or the analyst’s suggestion. The feasibility phase often involves gathering informa- tion on and understanding the current system if there is one. Problems are identified and the benefits of solving them are assessed. If no current system exists, then research may be carried out on similar systems in other organiza- tions. It is a preliminary investigation that tries to identify the scope of the project and determine the project’s validity. On occasion, potential broad solu- tions are suggested and estimates of costs and benefits are made. Of course, at this stage, costs and benefits are difficult to identify and quantify. This is often left to subsequent stages when more detailed information is known. The outcome of the stage is a feasibility report on the project that would typically be presented to management. A decision must then be made whether to move on to the next stage of the life cycle, to cancel the project altogether, or to shelve the project for the time being until conditions become more favorable.
Analysis Phase
A systems development project usually involves an examination of the current operations and systems. For example, in assessing the development of a new order processing system, the existing system should be analyzed to gain an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of that system. The problems associated with any information system fall into broad categories (Table 2.2).
The costs associated with the problems can then be estimated. This informa- tion can be used to justify the expense of the new development. If the proposed system is completely new, then this phase can be used to research systems in other organizations.
In analyzing the current system the analysts conduct a detailed investiga- tion that employs various information gathering techniques such as interviews, observation, and questionnaires (see later section on information gathering).
The analysis study phase typically requires considerable end-user involvement.
Data flow diagrams are commonly drawn to document the existing system and form part of the documentation for the stage along with an analysis study phase report, which identifies the key problems and associated costs.
Requirements Phase
After studying the current system, the analysts must attempt to define the requirements for the proposed system. Again this phase requires much end-user involvement and employs a range of information gathering techniques. This phase of the systems development life cycle is a logical one. The emphasis is on defining what is required in terms of the information needed rather than on how the system should be physically implemented.
Table 2.2
Common Problems Found in Information Systems
Symptom of Problem General Problem
Managers find it difficult to make decisions Lack of information Customers complain about invoices Inaccurate data
Reports are not used Inappropriate level of information Reports arrive after date required Too slow in producing information Many errors being corrected in database Expensive information
The requirements of the proposed system can be documented using process models (data flow diagrams) and data models (entity relationship dia- grams). A computer-aided systems engineering (CASE) tool can be used to develop and store the documentation of the system. A presentation can be made to user management at the end of this stage to communicate the essential requirements of the proposed system.
Alternative Solutions Phase
The alternative solutions phase involves identifying possible implementation solutions for the requirements. Ideally, several options are proposed rather than one. The analyst presents these to management so they can make a decision regarding which alternative to choose. Alternative options can include a fully automated system, a partially automated system, or the use of an alternative technology. The option of keeping the system as it is should be included as a way of comparing the proposals. The technical details of each alternative system are specified and the costs estimated. Much depends on the resources and the type of system being developed as to the level of detail for each speci- fication. Time constraints do not usually allow the developers to specify all candidate solutions in absolute detail.
Design Phase
Systems design is a physical stage of the systems development life cycle because it concentrates on how the proposed system will be designed. All aspects of the proposed systems have to be designed (Table 2.3).
Hardware and Software Acquisition
Hardware and software may have to be acquired for the proposed system. If there is to be a substantial investment in technology, then considerable effort must be put into this task. If the company is sure about the hardware and soft- ware they require, then they can approach various vendors and ask for quotes for the products. Warranty agreements, price of products, quality of equip- ment, and reputation of the company are all factors to be considered when choosing a supplier. Other factors such as whether the company is a local com- pany that will pick up equipment under warranty to repair it can be important because greater delays may be experienced if the supplier is not local.
If the company has not decided on particular hardware and software, they will require vendors to make recommendations with justifications in this area.
The requirements of the organization should be outlined for the vendors who
should respond with their suggestions. The vendors’ proposals can be ranked using a scoring system that allocates points on a scale of 1 to 10, for example, for each feature of the recommendations.
Implementation
Implementation is the phase in the systems development life cycle when the system is built and tested and then handed over. Of all the phases, this usually takes the most amount of time. In fact, a lot has to happen during implementa- tion, including these major tasks:
• Rooms and buildings altered;
• Programs coded;
• Programs tested;
• Hardware installed;
• Systems software set up;
• Applications software installed;
• Network installed;
Table 2.3
Activities of the Systems Design Phase Activities of Systems Design Description of Tasks
Software and hardware acquisition Sourcing and buying hardware and software Evaluating vendor recommendations Database and file design Setting up the database
Fine-tuning the performance of the database
Network design Design the data communications infrastructure
Input design Design of forms and input screens
Output design Design of reports and output screens
Interface design Design of the user interface (usually graphical user interface)
Software or program design Designing the software for modularity and reusability
Design of methods procedures and controls When events should happen and specifying the conditions under which they operate
• Database set up;
• Data keyed into database;
• Further testing;
• Security measures put in place;
• Security measures tested;
• Training of staff;
• Documentation updated;
• System handover;
• Reviews of the system.
The most important aspect of systems implementation is project manage- ment, which is the scheduling of events and the organizing of people to achieve set goals. Many projects run over time or over budget because of poor project management. Reasons why projects might run over time include these:
1. Overoptimistic estimates of task duration. This often happens as a result of trying to win contracts or being too eager to please project sponsors.
2. Poor project management skills. If the project leaders fail to compre- hend all of the tasks involved and the capabilities of the team, delays can result.
3. Poorly motivated project team. The team may be lacking incentives to complete the project on time.
4. Poorly motivated clients. Client staff can drag their heels and put up obstacles if they are resisting change.
5. Inadequate skills of project team. The team members may not be the right people for the job or they may not have had sufficient training.
6. Lack of corrective action. People are unwilling to be accountable and take responsibility for corrective action.
Systems conversion is a stage in the project when processing changes over from one system to another. Conversion can be carried out in several ways:
1. Direct conversion. On a set date, dispense with the old system and start with the new system.
2. Parallel conversion. Run both systems for a time.
3. Pilot conversion. The system is tested in one location before other loca- tions are converted.
4. Phased conversion. Subsystems are implemented one at a time.
5. Evolutionary conversion. This takes the perspective that a system evolves in small increments rather than radical changes from old to new.
Maintenance
Maintenance projects can be divided into two categories. The first category is related to correcting errors in the system. The errors may have been detected during the systems development process but were left to a later date for correc- tion. More likely, the errors will be detected when the system has been running for some time. The problems are logged and attended to in batches if they are deemed not to be critical. If they are critical to system operation, they must be attended to as soon as possible.
Changes will need to be made to the system at various times due to chang- ing requirements. These changes may come about because of new regulations, changed preferences, or new techniques that can improve the performance of the system. A change to a system can be a significant project in its own right and may require following the systems development life cycle, albeit a short- ened one.