Of the other means of storage that exist (such as thermal storage, creation of compressed air reserves, kinetic storage using a flywheel, etc.), the most widespread form of all the combined applications is undoubtedly electrochemical storage through batteries. The primary concerns and goals associated with energy storage are outlined in the first part. In addition, we highlight some of the open issues and restrictions associated with energy storage.
In this study, the authors focused exclusively on the integration of energy storage systems for use in microgrids. The purpose of this review article is limited to the study of energy storage devices used in electrified railway systems. Section 2 lists the main concerns and goals for the study of energy storage and the key participants in the process.
The selection criteria for the storage techniques have been discussed in the previous section and different energy storage approaches are described in the following subsections. The rotational kinetic energy of the cylinder is then converted back into electrical energy. Figure 3. The main components of a pumping station for energy transfer. Therefore, it is necessary to develop suitable electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices that are both environmentally friendly and capable of providing sustained energy [87,88].
Therefore, it is necessary to develop suitable electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices that are environmentally friendly and capable of providing long-term energy [87,88].
Batteries
Lead-acid batteries quickly reached an energy density of 30 watt-hours per kilo (Wh/kg), which, although modest (due to the high molar mass of lead, which exchanges 2 moles of electrons with 217 g per mole), gives this composite is one of the most widely used accumulators due to its low price. Recent results published in the literature do not encourage optimism regarding the chances of short-term success of this system. These systems have the significant advantage that they allow simple control of the amount of stored energy, as it is directly proportional to the size of the reservoirs.
On the other hand, there are still some questions about the sustainability of these systems (corrosion related to the nature of the electrolytes used, the risk of an unwanted electrolyte mixture, etc.) and their cost [120]. The maximum voltage of these cells is limited by the decomposition of the electrolyte, namely, 2.7 to 3 V in non-aqueous electrolytes. Larger structures (> 100 F) are used in aeronautics (eg, Airbus A380), automotive products (eg, brake energy recovery), transportation (trams, buses, boats, etc.), cranes ports, etc.
They also allow, together with the characteristics of the batteries used, to increase the lifetime of the latter by providing the most restrictive power peaks for the battery. Conditioning Systems (PCSs) account for a small part of the total cost in storage systems based on lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries, as shown in Figure 13[122].. A380), automotive products (e.g. .brake energy recovery ), transport (railways, buses, boats, etc.), harbor cranes, etc. Power-Conditioning Systems (PCS) account for a small part of the total cost of storage systems based on lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries, such as shown in Figure 13 [122].
As for the electrolyte, the acid-water-based liquid at the bottom of the battery can be recovered and reused as such by part of industry, or it can be decomposed by removing the water so that only the acid ends up be utilized. The delivery of new batteries is accompanied by the collection of old batteries for recycling, which is more important given the importance of the carbon footprint of transport. The collected percentage of the weight of different battery types recycled in 2013 is shown in Figure14[130].
As for the electrolyte, the acid-water-based liquid at the bottom of the battery can be recycled and reused as such by part of industry, or it can be decomposed by removing the water so that only the acid ends up utilized. The delivery of new batteries is accompanied by the collection of old batteries for recycling, which is more important given the significance of the carbon footprint of transport. The theoretical approaches to the assessment of battery condition are systematically summarized in this section from the following four perspectives: the estimation of the remaining capacity and energy, power capability predictions, lifetime and health predictions, as well as other important BMS indicators.
The theoretical approaches to assessing battery health are systematically summarized in this section from the following four perspectives: the estimation of remaining capacity and energy, power predictions, longevity and health predictions, as well as other key BMS indicators. The percentage of peak power to rated power, i.e. the maximum continuous control over a short period that does not exceed the thresholds, can be used to define the SOP [135].
Discussion
When the batteries are fully charged, the voltage and SOC can be balanced using cell balancing. Without a balanced system, a cell's voltage will only fluctuate over time, thus reducing the pack capacity and causing battery arrangement errors [139]. Numerous nations are devoting significant research and development resources to creating more efficient batteries, with multiple goals ranging from improving the autonomy of portable systems, electric vehicles and hybrids to providing large-scale storage for the electric grid.
New approaches, such as lithium-sulfur (LI-S), metal-air and sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries, are being developed, while conventional Li-ion batteries (due to their energy density ) and supercapacitors (due to their power density) still make up the largest share of the electricity storage market. The environmental benefit associated with the possibility of large-scale deployment of intermittent energy; The development of electrical energy storage techniques and their integration into available networks is a sine qua non for a successful energy transition.
Storage solutions must be diversified to meet different supply-demand balance needs, such as those related to duration, response speed, quantity stored, and location. In the short and medium term, the act of meeting this huge need for storage seems increasingly urgent and important to meet the global warming objectives that are intellectually accepted by most citizens. For example, the use of electric or hydrogen cars, while representing great innovative progress towards achieving greater cleanliness in our environments, may not be practical.
Only when "carbon-free" electricity has dethroned the current "carbon-based" electricity will significant progress be made. In this regard, the main research topics concern manufacturing and implementation processes, materials (container and contents), overall efficiency, self-discharge and losses, lifetime and aging, safety, location and the connection to the network (a systemic approach). For treatment plants, optimization of pump turbines and infrastructures (limitation of corrosion from salt water, assessment of locations and environmental impacts, etc.).
For CAES, the improvement of compression systems at high pressures and high temperatures, as well as the improvement of the mechanical strength and conductivity of the materials used for the exchangers. For more efficient chemical processes, materials and chemical compounds, especially in relation to thermal and production-related implementation, and management processes that can increase the lifetime, autonomy and recyclability of the system. For hydrogen storage, the development of new concepts and new materials offers maximum safety at an acceptable cost.
Conclusions
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![Figure 2 shows an overview of the energy storage technologies discussed in the study [65]](https://thumb-ap.123doks.com/thumbv2/azpdfco/10329669.0/9.892.253.758.142.697/figure-shows-overview-energy-storage-technologies-discussed-study.webp)
