Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE

The ‘happiness’ dimension

Concept 2.2 Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE

41 The only thing that can account for systematic and consistent differences between national groups within such a homogeneous multinational population is nationality itself . . .

Hofstede, 1991: 252 Furthermore, in response to criticisms of his research method generally, Hofstede empha- sises the detailed and thorough nature of his research, the well-matched samples obtained and the correlations with other data, including many replications of his research.

When it comes to the reproach frequently made that his fi ve dimensions cannot possibly tell the whole story, Hofstede’s reaction is, basically: if others can fi nd more dimensions that are independent of those he has devised and which can be validated – fi ne! As he puts it: ‘Candidates are welcome to apply’ (Hofstede, 2001: 73).

The ‘happiness’ dimension

The Hofstede research paradigm has been used in a large number of research projects over the years. The initial four dimension model has been applied most frequently even though, as we have seen, Hofstede added a fifth dimension in 1991.

In the 2010 edition of Culture’s Consequences , Hofstede et al. added a sixth dimension as a result of the analysis done by his co-author, Michael Minkov, of the World Values Survey ( http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org ). This dimension is termed ‘Indulgence versus Restraint’.

According to Hofstede (2011), this extra dimension was included to cover aspects not covered by the other five and is one known from ‘happiness research’. The literature on ‘happiness’, often referred to as ‘subjective well-being’ or ‘subjective appreciation of life’ has flourished in recent decades. A ‘World Database of Happiness’ ( http://

www1.eur.nl/fsw/happiness/index.html ) registers the work carried out in this area.

This new dimension deals with the extent to which a society allows basic and natural desires to be gratified in its pursuit of happiness. The term ‘indulgence’ typifies societies which exercise little constraint in this pursuit; the term ‘restraint’

applies to societies which control desires for happiness and use strict social norms to do so.

The differences relate to freedom of speech, the importance of leisure, the extent of obesity and the maintenance of social order.

According to Hofstede (2011: 16),

Indulgence tends to prevail in South and North America, in Western Europe and in parts of Sub-Sahara Africa. Restraint prevails in Eastern Europe, in Asia and in the Muslim world. Mediterranean Europe takes a middle position on this dimension.

SPOTLIGHT 2.3

Concept 2.2 Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE

Another work using dimensions is the Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Eff ectiveness research programme, in short, the GLOBE project. GLOBE is a long-term programme divided into four phases, designed to conceptualise, operationalise, test and validate a cross-level integrated theory of the relationship between culture and societal, organisational and leadership eff ectiveness. Th e results of the second phase of the project

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 41

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 41 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Chapter 2 Dimensions of culture: Hofstede and GLOBE

are described in House et al . (2004). Th e follow-up to the project can be found in a second publication entitled Culture and Leadership Across the World: the GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies (Chhokar et al. , 2008). Th ese studies examine the historical, social and economic development of 25 countries (marked with an * in Table 2.9 ) which took part in GLOBE’s extensive research.

Dimensions of societal cultural variation

During the fi rst phase of the project, the investigators developed a range of dimensions of societal cultural variation, six of which have their origins in those identifi ed by Hofstede, two are derived from Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck and one from McClelland (Performance orientation). Th ese nine dimensions which GLOBE developed are given in the fi rst column of Table 2.7 , along with the defi nition of each. Th e dimensions were used to examine the practices/values construct at industrial, organisational and societal level. Th is was done by asking respondents questions as given in the second column of Table 2.7 .

Table 2.7 Culture construct definitions and sample questionnaire items

Culture construct definitions Specific questionnaire item

Power distance: the degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally

Followers are (should be) expected to obey their leaders without question

Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which a society, organisation or group relies on social norms, rules and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events

Most people lead (should lead) highly structured lives with few unexpected events

Humane orientation: the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring and kind to others

People are generally (should be generally) very tolerant of mistakes

Collectivism 1 (institutional collectivism): the degree to which organisational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action

Leaders encourage (should encourage) group loyalty even if individual goals suffer

Collectivism 2 (in-group collectivism): the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in their organisations or families

Employees feel (should feel) great loyalty towards this organisation

Assertiveness: the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational and aggressive in their relationships with others

People are (should be) generally dominant in their relationships with each other

Gender egalitarianism: the degree to which a collective minimises gender inequality

Boys are encouraged (should be encouraged) more than girls to attain a higher education (scored inversely)

Future orientation: the extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviours such as delaying gratification, planning and investing in the future

More people live (should live) for the present rather than for the future (scored inversely)

Performance orientation: the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence

Students are encouraged (should be encouraged) to strive for continuously improved performance

Source: House et al. , 2004: 30 ( Table 3.1 ).

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 42

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 42 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Concept 2.2 Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE

43 Th ese questions refl ect the two sides of culture: (1) the values, beliefs of a society or organisation, and (2) the practices of an organisation (not only a work organisation but also a family). Th ey were phrased in terms of ‘is’ and ‘are’, so that the responses would indicate actual cultural practice(s), i.e. ‘the way we do things’. Th e same questions were rephrased using ‘should’ and put to the respondents to enable a response that indicated the cultural value(s) held by each respondent (i.e. ‘the ideal way of doing things’).

One reservation concerning GLOBE’s fi ndings should be mentioned. Although a large number of respondents were involved in the project, multinational employees were excluded in the surveys in order to ensure that responses came only from representatives of the country in question.

Table 2.8 gives some of the scores on these dimensions for those countries that feature in the follow-up GLOBE publication (Chhokar et al. , 2008). It shows the ranking of India where the scores of the country are compared with the highest and lowest scores from the original list of countries under investigation (as listed in Table 2.9 ).

Table 2.8 Societal culture ‘As Is’ and ‘Should Be’

Societal culture ‘As Is’ and ‘Should Be’

Societal culture ‘As Is’ India (rank) Highest (country) Lowest (country)

Assertiveness 3.73 (53) 4.80 (Albania) 3.38 (Sweden)

Institutional collectivism (Collectivism I) 4.38 (25) 5.22 (Sweden) 3.25 (Greece) In-group collectivism (Collectivism II) 5.92 (4) 6.36 (Philippines) 3.53 (Denmark) Future orientation 4.19 (I5) 5.07 (Singapore) 2.88 (Russia)

Gender egalitarianism 290 (55) 4.08 (Hungary) 2.50 (South Korea)

Humane orientation 4.57 (9) 5.23 (Zambia) 3.18 (Germany)

Performance orientation 4.25 (23) 4.94 (Switzerland) 3.20 (Greece)

Power distance 5.47 (16) 5.80 (Morocco) 3.89 (Denmark)

Uncertainty avoidance 4.15 (29) 5.37 (Switzerland) 2.88 (Russia)

Societal culture ‘Should Be’ India (rank) Highest (country) Lowest (country)

Assertiveness 4.76 (7) 5.56 (Japan) 2.66 (Turkey)

Institutional collectivism (Collectivism I) 4.71 (32) 5.65 (El Salvador) 3.83 (Georgia) In-group collectivism (Collectivism II) 5.32 (50) 6.52 (El Salvador) 4.94 (Switzerland) Future orientation 5.60 (29) 6.20 (Thailand) 4.33 (Denmark) Gender egalitarianism 4.51 (36) 5.17 (England) 3.18 (Egypt)

Humane orientation 5.28 (44) 6.09 (Nigeria) 4.49 (New Zealand)

Performance orientation 6.05 (26) 6.58 (El Salvador) 4.92 (S. Africa Black sample) Power distance 2.64 (38) 3.65 (S. Africa Black sample) 2.04 (Colombia)

Uncertainty avoidance 4.73 (29) 5.61 (Thailand) 3.16 (Switzerland) Source: Chhokar et al. , 2008: 993 ( Table 27.6 ).

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 43

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 43 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Chapter 2 Dimensions of culture: Hofstede and GLOBE

One point worth noting from the table is that India’s scores in terms of ‘As Is’ are high for all dimensions except for Gender Egalitarianism and Assertiveness. Another point emerging from this table is the considerable discrepancy between the ‘As Is’ score and the ‘Should Be’ score for Power Distance. Th ese and other issues are touched upon in Chapter 4 where features of non-Western societies are described. Such discrepancies come to the fore in many of GLOBE’s fi ndings, as exemplifi ed in the second illustration taken from Chhokar et al. (2008). In Figure 2.1 , the scores of societies on one particular dimension, that of Power Distance , are visualised.

Th e reader will see that all the scores in Table 2.8 show that the ‘As Is’ scores were higher than ‘Should Be’ scores in all countries. All the societies covered, it appears, want more equality than there actually is. Th is goes particularly for China. Th e discrepancy between this society’s ‘As Is’ (5.04) score and its ‘Should Be’ (3.10) is the highest discrepancy of all the scores for China. Although Chinese managers show themselves to be very tolerant of inequality of power in society, they consider that power should be spread more equally.

Chhokar et al. (2008) consider this to be a possible refl ection of the two forces – one internal and one external – that are at play in Chinese society. Upholding traditional values entails superiors being held in great respect, which in turn can hold Chinese leaders back in their attempts to promote economic effi ciency. Pressures from outside China, on the other hand, are forcing these leaders to become even more competitive, to consider merit rather than superiority of age or position. Th is question of competing values will be examined further in Concept 10.2 with regard to changing corporate culture.

Th is particular fi nding with regard to China refl ects those of the GLOBE project generally: societal values and practices had a signifi cant eff ect on organisational culture on all nine dimensions of organisational cultural practice. Th is went for all three industrial sectors and all the medium to large companies being investigated. As an example, let us analyse the results of practices and values on organisational culture in a ‘fl at country’, as Chhokar et al. (2008) call the Netherlands, in the banking/fi nancial, food and insurance sectors.

According to the GLOBE fi ndings for three of the dimensions (performance orientation, gender egalitarianism and institutional collectivism) the Dutch scores are higher on values (‘Should Be’) than practices (‘As Is’), while uncertainty avoidance score is lower.

Th us, Dutch middle managers seem to prefer an organisational culture more focused on eff ective performance as well as humane and collective orientation. Th e study concludes that Dutch societal and organisational culture, while main taining its classical values, tends to attach more importance to individual performance and innovation.

From the GLOBE Project’s fi ndings, it is clear that Dutch managers consider the Performance Orientation to be an important cultural dimension for business. What is also clear is that the distance between ‘As Is’ and ‘Should Be’ for this dimension is not only very high in the Netherlands, but also in most of the countries studied (Chhokar et al. , 2008: 1090). Th is is the case in Finland, a country which is infl uenced by both the West as well the East, where the scores show a gap between the perception of practices (‘As Is’) and values (‘Should Be’) for both Performance Orientation and Power Distance.

Finnish managers think that they have to improve the current situation concerning these two dimensions in order to face future competition. To achieve this goal, they want to develop more effi ciency and innovation.

Aft er having developed nine societal dimensions, the GLOBE Project goes further in its research by proposing six ‘leadership dimensions’ (Chhokar et al. , 2008). Th ese dimensions

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 44

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 44 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Concept 2.2 Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE

45 Figure 2.1 GLOBE dimension of societal culture practices (‘As Is’) and values (‘Should Be’): Power Distance Source: Chhokar S.J. et al. , 2008: 108.

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 45

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 45 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Chapter 2 Dimensions of culture: Hofstede and GLOBE

help to understand the commonalities and diff erences in leadership perceptions across countries ( Chapter 8 will refer to this). In addition, this book keeps the original country-specifi c methodology of the research project and presents 25 countries classifi ed in clusters ( Table 2.9 ).

From dimensions to clusters

When faced with a cornucopia of cultures, it is natural to try to establish some sort of order that allows cultures to be clustered in terms of their similarities. Doing so enables those involved in multicultural operations to gain a perspective, be it a very general one, of similarities and diff erences between cultures. Religion, languages, geography and ethnicity are considered relevant factors, as are work-related attitudes and values. Historical develop- ments and economic similarities are also seen as playing a crucial role in the clustering.

Th e result shows a variety of countries classifi ed into 10 clusters arranged according to calculations relating to the average distance in societal culture dimensions. Th e countries featuring in the clusters are given in Table 2.9 :

Table 2.9 The countries composing each culture cluster

Anglo Latin Europe Nordic Europe Germanic Europe

*Australia Canada *England *Ireland *New Zealand *South Africa

(White sample) *United States

*France Israel Italy *Portugal *Spain Switzerland

(French-speaking)

Denmark *Finland *Sweden

*Austria

*Germany (former East) *Germany (former West) *Netherlands

*Switzerland (German speaking)

Eastern Europe Latin America Sub-Saharan Africa Middle East Albania

Georgia *Greece Hungary Kazakhstan Poland *Russia Slovenia

*Argentina Bolivia Brazil *Colombia Costa Rica Ecuador El Salvador Guatemala *Mexico Venezuela

Namibia Nigeria South Africa

(Black sample) Zambia Zimbabwe

Egypt Kuwait Morocco Qatar *Turkey

Southern Asia Confucian Asia *India

Indonesia Iran Malaysia Philippines Thailand

*China *Hong Kong Japan *Singapore South Korea Taiwan Source: Chhokar et al. , 2008: 13.

* Countries dealt with at length in this book.

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 46

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 46 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Points for reflection

Conclusion

This chapter has explained the cultural dimensions of Hofstede and the relationship between national cultural values and those of organisational cultures. It has also outlined the many criticisms of Hofstede’s research method, particularly the reliability and applicability of the findings. The chapter has also explained how the researchers involved in the GLOBE project have expanded this five-dimension model and the value orientation model (Kluckholn and Strodtbeck, 1961); and how they used a survey method which allows for a better understanding of the relations between organisational practices and social values.

However, the above mentioned research is not exhaustive. Chapter 5 will go further with the value orientation and dimension approaches used in the business, including those of Trompenaars.

The significance of Hofstede’s fifth dimension – short-term and long-term orientation – has also been described. This dimension is of special significance bearing in mind the increasing importance in current business of the relations between the Western countries and those in the East, especially China.

The clusters proposed by the GLOBE project ( Table 2.9 ) will be the starting point for the following two chapters. Each chapter will take aspects of each cluster relating to history, religion and work-related values and practices. Chapter 3 will consider all European countries as well as the American and Australasian continents. Chapter 4 will cover the clusters in other parts of the world.

Points for reflection

1. This chapter has described cultural dimensions that can give insight into differences between national cultures.

What are the advantages and limitations when using these dimensions to describe organisational cultures?

2. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions were characterised in this chapter in relation to the business environment.

Which of the dimensions mentioned in this chapter do you consider to be most relevant to the study of culture in the business context? Explain your choice.

3. The Hofstede’s fifth dimension arose from research carried out by researchers with

‘Eastern minds’.

What added value does this dimension give to measuring the effect of culture in all business contexts around the world?

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 47

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 47 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Chapter 2 Dimensions of culture: Hofstede and GLOBE

4. One criticism of Hofstede’s work is that the scores on each dimension reflect only an ‘average tendency’ of a particular country and, therefore, inadequately reflect the wide range of responses given within a country to the survey, particularly from subcultures.

Look up the profile of your country, as given on the Geert Hofstede website ( www.geert-hofstede.com ) and consider its analytical value, particularly with regard to any subcultures that you are aware of within your country.

5. On the basis of the results of its surveys, the GLOBE project arranged the countries in 10 clusters (see Table 2.9 ).

What is your opinion concerning this kind of classification of countries?

References

Chhokar, J.S., Brodbeck, F.C. and House, R.J. (eds) (2008) Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies , New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Chinese Culture Connection (1987) ‘Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , 18: 143–164.

Fang, T. (2003) ‘A critique of Hofstede’s fifth national culture dimension’, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management , 3(3): 347–368.

Hofstede, G. (1980) Culture’s Consequences , 1st edition, Beverly Hills: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (1991) Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind , London: McGraw-Hill.

Hofstede, G. (1998) Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures , Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (2001) Culture’s Consequences , 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 48

M02_BROW5897_03_SE_C02.indd 48 12/17/14 5:32 PM12/17/14 5:32 PM

Dalam dokumen UNDERSTANDING CROSS-CULTURAL MANAGEMENT (Halaman 64-73)

The ‘happiness’ dimension

Concept 2.2 Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE

The ‘happiness’ dimension

SPOTLIGHT 2.3

Concept 2.2 Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE

Dimensions of societal cultural variation

From dimensions to clusters

Conclusion

Points for reflection

Further reading

References