Despite class being one of the central foci of sociology, it is still an ill-defined and often ambiguous term. Anecdotally we under- stand what we mean when we say someone is middle class, but understanding how this affects their consumption of hospitality goods and services is quite another thing. Engel, Blackwell and
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Miniard (1995: 126) define social class as ‘relatively permanent and homogeneous divisions in a society into which individuals or families sharing similar values, lifestyles, interests and behaviours can be categorized’. However, despite suggesting that it encompasses a wide range of factors, they conclude that social class is largely a factor of economic performance. Statt (1997) suggests that the concept of class is Roman in origin, dating back to the use of wealth as a system of classification for admin- istrative purposes; however, today ‘social class is predominantly defined by the occupation of the individual’ (Blythe, 1997: 94).
There is, however, more to class than simple classifications of occupation. Class implies power, hierarchy, life chances, educa- tion and status, while simultaneously impacting on such issues as gender and ethnicity, among others. As Statt (1997: 161) states: ‘a stratified society, like a stratified cliff face, implies the existence of a hierarchy between the top and bottom strata . . . in society this denotes social groups that are more or less highly valued . . . [it also] implies the existence of a fundamental inequality in the way the resources of a society are distributed’. Within marketing aspects of social stratification have become a major focus of research activity, to the extent that Miller (1991) suggests that some 30 per cent of all research in major sociological journals is devoted to the nature and effect of social stratification. Despite this research, however, Sivadas, Mathew and Currey (1997) suggest that a number of factors have impeded our under- standing of the role of social class on consumer behaviour, citing changing demographics, the problems of empirical research in investigating contemporary society and ill-fitting research tools, among others.
The influence of social class or social stratification is that people within stratum largely interact with others from the same stratum. This is a result of living in the same area, having a similar education, working in similar occupations and often having the same circle of friends. Social groups are not physically separated; however, as a result of group values and norms they tend to behave as if they are. Weber (1946), for example, discussed class in terms of life chances, concluding that class is determined by the opportunities available to an individual in terms of earnings and, thus, resulting possessions. If we consider social class in this way, it suggests that consumption is both a result of social class and a factor in its determination, as Statt (1997: 163) states: ‘a person’s future socio-economic status is therefore dependent to a considerable extent on the social hand he or she is dealt at birth’.
Social class, while largely a feature of economic performance, is also demonstrated by a range of other factors, identified by Hospitality, Leisure & Tourism Series
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Engel, Blackwell and Miniard (1995) as listed in Table 5.1, and we will consider some of these in terms of their effect on consump- tion of hospitality products.
Occupation
Occupation is often seen as the best indicator of social class by consumer researchers, as the work we do greatly affects our lifestyles, and is an important factor in the way in which prestige and respect are awarded. Unfortunately for us, hospitality is not seen in the UK as a profession which demands the same respect as other occupations such as accountancy, for example, despite the requisite levels of ability and skills required successfully to operate a bar, restaurant or hotel.
Socialization
Research tends to suggest that people are most comfortable when they are with others who share similar values and behaviours.
Thus our social interactions tend to be limited to our immediate social class. For example, the likelihood of marriage within social class is much greater than between social class. Public house retailers have long recognized this factor and have traditionally developed public houses around very simple social categoriza- tion schemes such as estate public housess for social class D/E, taverns for the middle classes and trendy urban bars for the professionals.
Possessions and symbols
As Engel, Blackwell and Miniard (1995: 685) state: ‘possessions are symbols of class membership, not only the number of possessions but also the nature of the choices made’. In terms of consumption, social class in effect operates as a series of
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Table 5.1 Variables of social class Economic
variables
Interaction variables
Political variables
Occupation Personal prestige Power
Income Association Class-consciousness
Wealth Socialization Mobility
Source: adapted from Engel, Blackwell and Miniard (1995)
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subcultures, based on education, occupation and the economic power of its members. However, as it is such an ephemeral subject, it tends to be the symbols associated with class and status that are important. The exclusivity of goods and services denote status. Thus, if everyone can own a Mercedes or a Maurice Lacroix watch it cannot be used as a status symbol. Similarly, in hospitality if everyone can stay at the Savoy, dine at the Ivy or holiday at the Sandy Lane they cannot be used to denote prestige.
It is the exclusivity of a symbol that is its attraction; as such it symbolizes a wide range of other characteristics. Statt (1997: 163) suggests that in order to denote status or prestige products have to demonstrate one of five factors:
1 Exclusivity: only a few people should be eligible to acquire it;
the status of corporate hospitality at events such as Henley, Ascot and Wimbledon is largely a result of such exclusivity.
2 Expensive: one of the ways, but not the only one, in which status symbols retain their exclusivity; thus for most of us holidays at the Sandy Lane are beyond our means.
3 Quality: there is an assumption that status is reflected in the quality of goods and services; thus advertisements for facilities such as Forest Mere Health Club focus largely upon the quality of the experience, confirming that this is more than simply a spa.
4 Limited: as we have already suggested if everyone can eat at restaurants such as the Ivy, it does not offer scope for prestige.
In truth, those with status do not have to make reservations.
5 Respect: status symbols only operate as long as people respect the symbolism; thus designers such as Dior lost their power to denote status through franchising the name to a huge range of merchandise, much of which was of inferior quality. In hospitality many of the restaurants owned and operated by
‘celebrity’ chefs such as Worrell-Thompson came under fire when it became clear that the involvement of the celebrity was often nothing more than name alone, with a resultant decline in quality and thus status.
All societies have a system of social class and status; the questions from a hospitality consumption viewpoint are, how many classes are there? How identifiable are they? How does their existence impact on their consumption behaviour? In the UK the standard British classification uses six categories des- ignated by the letters A to E. However, for marketing purposes companies often combine A, B and C1(a total of almost 40 per cent of the population) and C2, D and E (the remaining 60 per cent of the population). Hospitality, Leisure & Tourism Series
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Class-consciousness and social mobility
Class-consciousness refers to the extent to which people are aware of their social class and the characteristics that define it, and thus are aware of themselves as a distinct group with shared consumption patterns. Social mobility refers to two aspects: first, that people move between strata, largely as a result of the related factors of income and education; and, second, the argument that stratification itself is undergoing significant changes, not least due to movements such as postmodernism which indicates a blurring at the edges of social stratification. In western ideology it has always been a source of achievement for individuals to seek upward mobility within society, with the result that countries such as the UK and the USA have both seen a bulging of the population classified as middle class.
The impact of social class on hospitality consumption
Social class affects the consumption of hospitality products in a number of ways, for example, the type of leisure preferred, the food and drink we consume, the holidays we take, etc. These choices are made based on the activities of others within the same or closely adjacent social levels. For example, much to their surprise, towns such as Rock and Newquay in Cornwall have become a focus for end of school-year activities for predom- inantly middle and upper-middle class girls and boys in recent years. The bars, clubs and restaurants of the area have responded by redirecting their activities to this high-spending segment of the market. However, these towns need to be aware that fads such as this will end as quickly as they began. In a similar manner we can see the influence of class in the holiday destinations we choose – the Spanish mainland and islands are closely associated with lower-middle and working class holidays, areas such as inland Italy and Brittany with the middle classes and the Caribbean with the upper-middle classes. Similarly, forms of recreation are often seen as class based – polo is upper class (with tournaments sponsored by companies such as Cartier), tennis is middle class (with tournaments sponsored by companies such as Stella Artois) and bingo is lower class (and is subsequently funded by the participants themselves with limited opportunities for sponsorship). Social class values give direction to hospitality marketers. For example, it is suggested that social class impacts upon advertising (Assael, 1998) with the upper classes being more open to symbolism and individualism; thus advertisements for hotels are often linked to status and/or power. Social class is also seen to be linked to the distribution of hospitality services.
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For example, lower classes tend to consume in their neighbour- hood, where they are most comfortable; thus if this is the market a product is aimed at it makes little sense to locate it on an out-of- town retail park (Prasad, 1975). Research also suggests that social class is a feature of design (Roscoe, LeClaire and Schiffman, 1997) with the upper classes emphasizing style and colour, whereas working-class consumers emphasize fitness for purpose, that is, does it work. This of course might be a self-fulfilling prophecy, the working-classes often do not have the luxury of replacing items on aesthetic grounds. This feature can be seen in many hospitality venues; boutique hotels, for example, feature designer fabrics and furnishings, in a minimalist manner. Compare this to the Travel Inn where rooms are stuffed with items, all of which are necessary if the hotel is to work for its customers. The Malmaison hotel brand, which is designed to look like an upmarket French pension, is a good example of this feature of social class, being aimed squarely at upper-middle, upper class and professional customers, the exclusivity being ensured by price among other mechanisms. However, it does not offer concierge services, room service, leisure facilities, cr`eches or any of the other features that one would associate with this standard of hotel, and certainly features that customers of other social classes would consider essential. Malmaison suggests that if you are the kind of person who needs to haul lots of luggage around this is not your sort of hotel, its customers have limited, but frequently laundered, clothing.
It is clear that the world of hospitality is full of symbols associated with class and status, ranging from exclusive hotels (indeed, Forte once had a brand of hotels known as the Exclusive Hotels of the World), to celebrity restaurants and designer bars.
Bars like the ‘Met’ in London signify status and class to their customers, and when they are no longer fashionable those seeking the attached status quickly move on. In any given society status and prestige is available to very few. However, many people will aspire to higher status and the consumption of hospitality goods and services are often associated with status, and thus may confer this on the consumer. In addition, it is increasingly argued that the value and appropriateness of using social classification as a mechanism for investigating consumer behaviour is changing. While clearly we have not achieved the much trumpeted classless society (look at the undue deference still given to a few people of limited ability or qualification on account of their parents being lucky enough to live in Bucking- ham Palace), it is clear that society is much more fragmented than was previously the case. The increasing presence of mass media, higher disposable incomes, a period of political stability and Hospitality, Leisure & Tourism Series
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economic prosperity, and a wider, though still inequitable, distribution of economic and political power, have all contributed to the decline in fixed social stratification. Due to the role that the above play in contemporary hospitality consumption we discuss them in greater detail in later chapters, as Wells (1993: 303) states: ‘with more acute awareness of sociological models and methods, consumer researchers would see new approaches to old problems’.
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C H A P T E R
• • • • 6
The influence of reference groups on hospitality consumers
K e y t h e m e s
䊉 This chapter considers the influence of
reference groups on hospitality consumers and the various roles played by group members.
䊉 It seeks to examine the variety of methods that have been used to measure the relative influence of reference groups.
䊉 It considers the nature and types of conflict that reference groups engender and the ways in which hospitality consumers resolve such conflicts.
䊉 The chapter considers the ways in which people are influenced by others around them, including family, friends, peers and other reference groups with whom individuals interact in the act of consuming hospitality goods and services.
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