Climate Change Adaptation

7 Urban wetlands and urban forests as a nature-based solution for climate adaptation in cities. 10 Nature-based solutions and buildings – The power of surfaces to help cities adapt to climate change and deliver.

Nature-Based Solutions to Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Areas—Linkages

Background

The concept of NBS is particularly embedded in the broader debates on adaptation to climate change, ecosystem services and green infrastructure (Kabisch et al. 2016a). Climate change mitigation refers to anthropogenic interventions to reduce anthropogenic forcing of the climate system.

Scope of the Book

While the focus is on NBS to promote climate change adaptation, the chapters also highlight important multiple co-benefits for human health, quality of life and well-being analyzed through interdisciplinary approaches. These topics were intensively discussed at the European conference "Nature-based Solutions to Climate Change in Urban Areas and Their Rural Surroundings - Linkages Between Science, Policy and Practice", which took place in Bonn, Germany, from 17 to 19 November 2015 (Kabisch et al. al. 2016b).

Structure and Contents of the Book

• Part I: Setting the Scene—Climate Change and the Concept of Nature-Based Solutions
• Part II: Evidence for Nature-Based Solutions to Adapt to Climate Change in Urban Areas
• Part III: Health and Social Benefits of Nature-Based Solutions in Cities
• Part IV: Policy, Governance and Planning Implications for Nature-Based Solutions

The overview also introduces options for mitigation and adaptation to climate change through urban green and blue spaces as an NBS in urban areas. Christine Wamsler and co-authors introduce the concept of mainstreaming climate change adaptation to promote sustainable urban development and resilience, in particular mainstreaming ecosystem- or nature-based solutions into urban governance and planning.

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Setting the Scene: Climate Change and the Concept of Nature-Based Solutions

Setting the scene: Climate change and the concept of nature-based solutions. eds.), Nature-Based Solutions for Climate Change Adaptation in Urban Areas, Theory and Practice of Urban Sustainability Transitions,.

Impacts of Climate Change on Urban Areas and Nature-Based Solutions for Adaptation

• Introduction
• General Impact and Consequences of Climate Change for Urban Areas in Europe
• Effect on Urban Temperatures
• Effect on Urban Hydrology
• Indirect Effects on Urban Habitats and Biodiversity
• Climate Change Adaptation Possibilities Using Green Infrastructure and Nature-Based Solutions
• Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI) and Nature-Based Solutions (NBS)
• Reducing Urban Temperature Through Green or Blue Infrastructure and NBS
• Selection and Management of Urban Vegetation Under Changing Climatic Conditions
• Green Infrastructure, NBS and Urban Hydrology
• Planning and Design Aspects of Green Infrastructure and Nature-Based Solutions for Adapting to Climate
• Conclusion

The effect and importance of the vegetation systems also depends on the organization of the urban structure such as structure and building type (Lehmann et al. 2014). Vegetation can also be used to change the energy balance of buildings directly (see also Enzi et al., this volume).

Fig. 2.1 Process for implementing NBS in a collaborative process with integration of modelling techniques

Nature-Based Solutions and Climate Change – Four Shades of Green

Introduction

Ecosystem services, in turn, are probably the most used concept of the four to strengthen the role of nature in decision-making (Haase et al. 2014). Meanwhile, all four concepts are now being applied in urban environments (Gómez-Baggethun et al. 2013; Brink et al. 2016).

Approach

Nature-Based Solutions in Comparison with Other Concepts

• Nature-Based Solutions
• Definitions of the Concept and Its Origin
• Main Features and Elements of NbS
• Ecosystem-Based Adaptation
• Definitions of the Concept and Its Origin
• Main Features and Elements of EbA
• Green Infrastructure
• Definitions of the Concept and Its Origin
• Main Features and Elements of GI
• Ecosystem Services
• Definitions of the Concept and Its Origin
• Main Features and Elements of ESS

Accordingly, it is embedded in the concepts of ecosystem services and adaptation to climate change (Chong 2014, Wamsler et al. 2014). Here, GI is often used interchangeably with approaches such as low impact development (LID) or sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) (Fletcher et al. 2014).

Discussion

• Foundations of the Four Concepts
• Commonalities and Differences
• NbS vs. EbA
• NbS vs. GI
• NbS vs. ESS
• Applicability in Urban Planning

The role of biodiversity for developing solutions to global challenges is at the core of NbS, but not necessarily in GI planning (Davies et al. 2015). However, the systematic uptake of ESS in urban policy making is still in its infancy and how to integrate ESS into urban development is under debate (Hansen et al. 2015).

Table 3.4Comparison of the four concepts ConceptRoots/origin and definitionCurrent focusGovernance focusUse in urban contextApplication in (planning) practice NbSNew concept, definition still under debate/developmentDealing with multiple societal challeng

Conclusion

Lovell ST, Taylor JR (2013) Providing urban ecosystem services through multifunctional green infrastructure in the United States. Vignola R, Lacatelli B, Martinez C, Imbach P (2009) Ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change: what is the role of policy makers, society and scientists.

Double Insurance in Dealing with Extremes

Ecological and Social Factors for Making Nature-Based Solutions Last

• Introduction
• External Insurance .1 Ecological Foundations
• Vulnerability and Exposure
• Internal Insurance
• The Role of Diverse Ecosystems
• Spatial Dynamics
• Public Support: Making Sense of NBS
• Investing in Insurance: Governance Frameworks
• Flexibility
• Participation
• Conclusions

Examples include coastal ecosystems that provide a physical barrier against storm surges (Costanza et al. 2006;. Ecosystem function and resilience are a result of the organisms present in the system and their interactions – with each other and the physical environment (e.g. eg Chapin) et al. 1997).

Table 4.1 The two levels of insurance. Definitions, key factors underlying the insurance capacity and key aspects of governance that could promote and support them

Nature-Based Solutions Accelerating Urban Sustainability Transitions in Cities: Lessons

Introduction

Nature-based solutions as social-spatial interventions have a transformative impact in the relationships between people and nature. First, nature-based solutions contribute to the mental and physical health and well-being of people in cities (Andersson et al. We add to this understanding that nature-based solutions can have regenerative impact (Carrus et al. 2015, p. 226).

Understanding the Acceleration Dynamics of Urban Sustainability Transitions

We argue that to understand the impact of natural solutions in cities, we need to focus on their social production (Ernston 2013). In accordance with the above, natural science solutions as socio-ecological environments require social actors and social processes that are carried out in cities. In this chapter, we examine how nature-based solutions spread as a social process that includes transitory initiatives that drive their social production.

Case Studies

• The City-Region of Dresden, Germany
• Nature-Based Solutions Initiatives in the City-Region Dresden In 2016, there are almost 100 local initiatives that strive for a sustainable future
• Accelerating Dresden’s Transition with Nature-Based Solutions’
• Genk Case, Belgium
• Nature-Based Solutions’ Initiatives in the City Region
• Accelerating Genk’s Transition with Nature-Based Solutions’
• Stockholm Case, Sweden
• Nature-Based Solutions’ Initiatives in the City Region Stockholm Miljöverkstan Flaten In 2011 it all started around the bathing place Flatenbadet
• Accelerating Stockholm’s Transition with Nature-Based Solutions’ Initiatives

In addition, VG is well connected with many small sustainable producers in the Dresden city region. The plan aims to strengthen the bee populations in the urban region by (1) improving Therefore, the green wedge collaborations in Stockholm are primarily about nature-to-people use of nature-based solutions, but also have indirect connections to locate nature-to-place and obviously create an important ecological support in the urbanized parts of the city in form. of restoration and regeneration (Photo 5.9).

Implications for Accelerating Urban Sustainability Transitions Through Nature-Based Solutions

Conversely, the decentralized administrative structure of the Stockholm metropolitan region gives a lot of political autonomy to the municipalities within the metropolitan region. Carmin J, Hicks B, Beckmann A (2003) Harnessing local action: grassroots initiatives and cross-border cooperation in shaping the white Carpathian Euregion. Final report of the Horizon 2020 expert group on "Nature-based solutions and re-naturing cities." Brussels.

Evidence for Nature-Based Solutions to Adapt to Climate Change

Integrating the Grey, Green, and Blue

• Introduction
• Challenges of Climate Change in Cities
• Risk and Vulnerability to People, Ecosystems and Infrastructures in Cities
• The SETS Framework
• Approaches to Reducing Risk and Overall Effects of Urban Climate Change
• Grey Strategies
• Green and Blue Infrastructures
• Hybrid, Green-Grey Approaches
• Focusing on Key Urban Climate Challenges .1 New York City and Climate Change
• Surface and Coastal Flooding in NYC
• Discussion
• Embrace Both Green and Grey Approaches
• Urban SETS and Importance of Bringing Together Engineering and Ecological Approaches
• Conclusion
• Critical Opportunities for Working with Hybrid Approaches in Cities for CCA and DRR

For example, sea walls are particularly effective in tsunamis, even though they can be costly (Khazai et al. 2007). Most adaptation strategies in the US are still in the early stages of design and implementation (Bierbaum et al. 2012). It ranks among the top ten cities in the world for assets exposed to coastal flooding exacerbated by climate change (Nicholls et al. 2008).

Fig. 6.1 Conceptualizing urban systems as social-ecological-technical systems (SETs) with emphasis on the interactions between social, ecological, and technical-infrastructural domains of cities and urban areas (Source: own elaboration)

Urban Wetlands and Riparian Forests as a Nature-Based Solution for Climate

Introduction: What Is the Value of Wetlands and Riparian Forests in Cities?

Their water balance and watershed systems are highly complex in terms of the continuous interactions between ground, interflow and surface waters (Haase and Nuissl 2007). Furthermore, and in addition to their importance in water flow regulation, they are stepping stones for species of different taxa and place for the creation of new or changed habitats and the survival of threatened species (Elmqvist et al. 2015). However, and not least because of the above characteristics, river regulation and wetland drainage have been common practice in most areas of Europe for centuries, with interventions increasing over the last 50–100 years.

Fig. 7.2 Proximity of major transport infrastructure to Ramsar areas in selected European

Ecosystem Services Relevant for Climate Change

Adaptation Provided by Wetlands and Riparian Forests and Trade-Offs

Urban Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution and Options for Their Design

As discussed in previous sections, wetlands and their riparian or floodplain forests as such are solutions created by nature to store, distribute and retain water in entire ecosystems and landscapes. This function is mainly influenced by people, mainly in cities and urban areas to use water as a resource and the river as a means of transport, on the one hand, and to protect people's lives and assets from floods on the other (see Haase 2011, Kubal et al. Moreover, events such as Hurricane Katrina in the USA in 2005 or the recent flooding of the Elbe in Germany in 2013 with the dangerous bursting of large dams made it abundantly clear that technological solutions in the event of failure can bring huge damage and casualties as their capacities are huge in terms of the amount of water they can collect/prevent from flowing, in fact much more than any nature-based solution (see also a global map by Scheuer et al 2012).

Fig. 7.3 Nature-based solutions linked to wetlands, riparian forests and floodplains (Photos:

Discussion and Conclusions

Regarding the spatial configuration of wetlands as part of larger river catchments, the aforementioned measures can be carried out either within cities or also upstream to be more efficient for flood protection, for example. We need to better understand and use the great balancing, buffering and metabolic capacities of wetlands and their forests in cities, as well as their recreational opportunities and air pollution filtering capacities, as they cannot simply be replaced by technology or solutions of gray infrastructure. Gill SE, Handley JF, Ennos AR, Pauleit S (2007) Adapting cities to climate change: the role of green infrastructure.

Making the Case for Sustainable Urban

Drainage Systems as a Nature-Based Solution to Urban Flooding

• Introduction
• Using Green Alongside Grey as an Alternative Approach to Flood Protection
• Making the Investment Case for SUDS
• Fostering a Wider Uptake and Implementation of SUDS
• Addressing Silos and Informational Gaps
• Ways Forward for Increased SUDS Deployment

1 Other terms are used elsewhere: among others BMP (Best Management Practices); MEMBER (Low Impact Development); WSUD (Water Sensitive Urban Design) (see: Fletcher et al. 2015 for a complete taxonomy). The UK's SUDS manual (see Woods Ballard et al. 2015) also outlines key concepts in estimating the costs and benefits of SUDS schemes and provides tools and further resources for assessments and comparisons with pure 'grey' infrastructure. The UK's SUDS manual (see Woods Ballard et al. 2015) also provides numerous good practice examples, tools and approaches for successful SUDS design, implementation and maintenance.

Table 8.1 European examples of SUDS and their components Lamb Drove, Cambourne, United Kingdom a

Assessing the Potential of Regulating

Ecosystem Services as Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Areas

• Introduction
• Regulating Ecosystem Services as Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Areas
• Global Climate Regulation (Carbon Sequestration and Avoided Emissions)
• Local Climate Regulation (Urban Temperature Regulation)
• Air Quality Regulation (Air Pollution Removal)
• The Case Study of Barcelona .1 Case Study Area
• Data and Main Results
• Synthesis and Concluding Remarks

Urban climate change risks, such as droughts, flash floods and heat waves, are increasingly impacting urban populations (Revi et al. 2014). 2014 Regional (BMR) Carbon emissions (pressure, demand proxy) kg/ha year Carbon emissions per sector and municipality (year 2012) Available carbon estimates Sustainable Energy Action Plans (Barcelona Regional Council data) Local (Barcelona municipality) Carbon emissions (Pressure) )t/year Carbon emissions per sector in Barcelona (year 2008)Available carbon inventoriesBaró et al. 2016 Different spatial predictions (see main references) Local (municipality of Barcelona) NO2 emissions (Press, demand proxy) t/year NO2 emissions in Barcelona and background pollution impact (year 2008) Available emission data Baró et al.

Fig. 9.1 Effects of climate change-related pressures (e.g., air pollution, GHG emissions, heat stress) on urban environmental quality within a system with low to no regulating capacity (red line) and a system with high regulating capacity (blue line)

Nature-Based Solutions and Buildings – The Power of Surfaces to Help Cities Adapt

Greening the Urban Market: Now We’re Growing!

At the same time, climate change is bringing more frequent and extreme weather events, such as summer storms, flash floods and heat waves (EEA 2012). Outside of these three main European markets, several other cities, such as London, Rotterdam and Paris, show significant increases in green roof installations, mainly due to policy (e.g. Greater London Authority 2008). Currently, concern over the cost of maintaining green infrastructure, such as green roofs, is a perceived barrier to faster deployment.

Fig 10.1 Green design for Londons Roofs (Source: Arup, on behalf of the London Sustainable Development Commission)

10.2 “Green” Versus “Grey” Solutions for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

• Extreme Weather – Excess Heat Events and Energy
• Urban Flooding
• Linkages Between Water and Energy
• The Power of Surfaces – Changing the Urban Skin to Green
• Multiple Benefits of Green Walls and Roofs
• Green Building Technology as an Attractive Investment
• Disservices of Green Building Technology
• Technology Versus Biodiversity? Or Technology Delivering Biodiversity?
• Nature Provides the Power to Re-wire the City

Nature-based solutions such as green roofs and green walls (see Fig. 10.2) can have a positive effect on improving the Urban Heat Island and thereby contribute to increasing energy efficiency, explained in detail in Chapter 4. All green roof and wall solutions implicitly provide different habitat functions for their bird and insect users (Mann 1994), and in some way contribute to the urban ecological habitat network, serving as springboards for species such as insects and birds, as well as parks. at ground level (Mann 1998) (Fig. 10.13). This approach was embraced in London (see Figure 10.14) and now forms the basis of the planning approach for extensive green roofs in the British capital (Greater London Authority 2008).

Fig. 10.2 “Cool” facades in Europe’s capitals (Source: Vera Enzi)

Project Links

Health and Social Benefits of Nature-Based Solutions in Cities

Health and social benefits of nature-based solutions in cities. eds.), Nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation in urban areas, theory and practice of urban sustainability transitions.

Effects of Urban Green Space on

Environmental Health, Equity and Resilience

• Introduction
• Pathways Linking Urban Green Space with Health and Well-Being
• Improved Relaxation and Restoration
• Improved Functioning of the Immune System
• Enhanced Physical Activity and Improved Fitness
• Improved Social Capital and Cohesion
• Health Benefits of Green Space and Potential Health Risks
• Improved Mental Health and Cognitive Function
• Reduced Cardiovascular Morbidity and Mortality
• Reduced Prevalence of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes
• Improved Pregnancy Outcomes
• Reduced Mortality and Increased Life Span
• Potential Adverse Health Effects
• Benefits in Disadvantaged Groups and Reduction of Health Inequality
• Conclusion

There is strong evidence of the mental health benefits of urban green spaces (reviewed by de Vries 2010). In a systematic review, Dzhambov et al. 2014) summarized evidence showing that residential access to green space is associated with a reduced risk of low birth weight. There is increasing evidence that urban green can be 'equigenic' (Mitchell et al. 2015), i.e.