16.4.1 General Considerations

The basic principle of muon measurement in the ATLAS muon spectrometer is to obtain three segments (or super-spots) along the muon's trajectory. The precision required in measuring the muon moment also implies excellent knowledge of the magnetic field.

Table 16.10 Main parameters of the ATLAS calorimeter system

Alignment

The inhomogeneity of the field and its fast variations cannot be approximated by simple analytical descriptions and must be carefully accounted for, thus increasing the importance of using the intrinsic detector information to reconstruct the low-momentum muon tracks at the velocity of low false. Final stretch values will clearly be obtained with the large statistics of muon tracks traversing the muon chambers (rates of about 10 kHz are expected at a luminosity of 1033cm−2s−1 for muons with pT >6 GeV).

Construction Experience and Measured Performance in Laboratory and Test Beam

As for the other detector systems, the ATLAS collaboration has put a lot of effort into validating the muon spectrometer concept using high-energy test beam muons. The test beam setup involved calculating deviations from the nominal chamber positions and storing the results in a database.

Trigger and Data Acquisition System

General Considerations

The L2 farm, however, must provide a decision on all events received by the L1 trigger. To reduce the data flow to the L2 farm, only a portion of the detector information is actually transferred from the read buffers to the L2 processors.

L1 Trigger System

Muon Trigger
Calorimeter Trigger

This farm runs the final, essentially offline-like selection, "seeding" the reconstruction from the objects previously identified by the L2 trigger to reduce overall processing time. The final decision about the event is achieved by the central trigger processor itself, using either information from only the muon trigger or in conjunction with other objects in the event (e.g. the presence of a high-pT electron).

Fig. 16.17 Block diagram of the ATLAS L1 trigger. The overall L1 accept decision is made by the central trigger processor, taking input from calorimeter and muon trigger results

High-Level Trigger and Data Acquisition Systems

Data Acquisition
High-Level Trigger

The sum of the transverse energies of all jets found in the event is also given; The initial development path focused on identifying and implementing the full functionality required for use in the final DAQ.

Computing and Software

Computing Model

Event Data Model
Data Flow and Processing

Reconstructed data (referred to as event summary data or ESD): this is the output of the reconstruction process. In addition, specialized calibration streams allow for independent processing from the bulk of the physics data.

Software

The primary use, as mentioned above, is to allow prioritization of data processing. The first step before fast complete reconstruction is the actual processing of the calibration data in the shortest possible time.

Analysis Model

The core of the experiment's software system is the software framework, which supports all data processing tasks. The final element of the analytics model is a distributed analytics system that allows remote job submissions from anywhere.

Expected Performance of Installed Detectors .1 Tracker Performance

Calorimeter Performance

Electromagnetic Calorimetry
Hadronic Calorimetry

Adjustments to the stochastic, noise, and local constant terms of the calorimeter resolution are also shown. In the case of ATLAS, the resolution is shown for three pseudo-velocity values (only the electron energy measurement is used, with the energy collected in a 3 x 7 cell array in η × φ space), along with fits to stochastic and local constant calorimeter resolution expressions.

Fig. 16.19 For ATLAS (left) and CMS (right), expected relative precision on the measurement of the energy of photons reconstructed in different pseudorapidity regions as a function of their energy (see text)

Muon Performance

In ATLAS, the quality of the independent muon measurement depends on detailed knowledge of the material distribution in the muon spectrometer, especially for intermediate-momentum muons. An interesting demonstration of the robustness of muon systems comes from the reconstruction of muons in heavy-ion collisions.

Fig. 16.23 Expected performance of the ATLAS muon measurement. Left: contributions to the momentum resolution in the muon spectrometer, averaged over | η | < 1.5

Trigger Performance

The performance of the L1 and HLT trigger systems has been verified against all comparative "major detection channels" in extensive studies of both. These include all the expected Standard Model Higgs boson decays as well as multiple Higgs boson decays in the case of supersymmetry.

Table 16.14 Examples of L1 trigger tables from ATLAS and CMS

Ten Years of Operation and Physics Analysis in a Nutshell

Accelerated History: Rediscovering the Standard Model
Precision Measurements
Discovery and Measurements of the Higgs Boson
Search for New Physics: Dashed and Renewed Hopes

The evolution of the significance of the Higgs boson signal during this period is shown in Figure 16.34. In contrast to the channels used for detection, the vast majority of signals.

Table 16.16 Successive steps in preparation, commissioning, and operation of the ATLAS detector at the LHC

Conclusion

Akesson, T., et al., Report of the High Luminosity Study Group to the CERN Long Range Planning Committee, ed. Images or other third-party material in this chapter are covered under this chapter's Creative Commons license, unless otherwise noted in the credit line for the material.

Neutrino Detectors Under Water and Ice

Introduction

The highest energies are covered by balloon detectors that record radio emissions in terrestrial ice masses, terrestrial radio antennas sensitive to radio emissions in the lunar crust, or satellite detectors that look for fluorescent light or airborne radio signals caused by neutrinos. showers. Underwater/ice detectors – in addition to searching for neutrinos from cosmic ray sources – also address various questions of particle physics (see reviews [12,13]).

Fig. 17.1 Spectra of natural and reactor neutrinos

Neutrino Interactions

Principle of Underwater/Ice Neutrino Telescopes

Cherenkov Light
Light Propagation
Detection of Muon Tracks and Cascades

Muon Tracks
Cascades

The scattering length Lb(λ) and the scattering coefficientb(λ), defined by analogy with La(λ)anda(λ). scattering at the scattering angleθ. Underwater/ice telescopes are optimized for detecting muon tracks and for energies of one TeV or higher, for the following reasons: a) The flux of neutrinos from cosmic accelerators is expected to be more difficult than that of atmospheric neutrinos, giving a better signal-to-background ratio at higher energies.

Table 17.2 summarizes typical values for Lake Baikal [19, 20], oceans [21, 22]

Effective Area and Sensitivity

The effective volume for the clear identification of isolated cascades of neutrino interactions is close to the geometric volume of the detector. The decrease at high energies and large zenith angles is due to the opacity of the Earth for neutrinos with energies above ≈100 TeV.

Fig. 17.7 Effective area of the IceCube detector for neutrinos, A eff (ν), assuming the detection mode of through-going muons

Reconstruction

More complicated probabilities include the probability that hit PMs are hit and non-hit PMs are not hit, or the amplitude of hit PMs. For efficient background suppression, the likelihood can also include information about the zenith angular dependence of the background and the signal (Bayesian likelihood).

First Generation Neutrino Telescopes

The Baikal Neutrino Telescope NT200
AMANDA
Mediterranean Projects: ANTARES

One of the first upward moving muons from a neutrino interaction recorded with the 4-string stage of the Lake Baikal detector in Fig.17.9), the other, the light pulses from the other laser under the array (not shown in the figure ) spread to the OMs through the water. A String Controller Module (SCM), located at the base of each string, connects the string to the rest of the detector.

Fig. 17.9 Left: The Baikal Neutrino Telescope NT200. Right: One of the first upward moving muons from a neutrino interaction recorded with the 4-string stage of the Lake Baikal detector in 1996 [40]

Second Generation Neutrino Telescopes .1 IceCube

KM3NeT
IceCube-Gen2

The combination of IceTop information (reflecting the predominantly electronic component of the air shower) and IceCube information (muons from the hadronic component) allows the mass range of the primary particle to be estimated. A cross-sectional view and drawing of the DOM is shown at the top of Figure 17.18.

Fig. 17.14 Schematic view of an IceCube digital optical module

Physics Results: A 2018 Snapshot

Technologies for Extremely High Energies

Detection via Air Showers
Radio Detection

Record limits have been derived for neutrino fluxes from dark matter annihilations in the Earth, Sun or Galactic halo and for the flux of magnetic monopoles (which, if relativistically fast, can be identified by their high light emission) and coupling of the hypothetical sterile neutrino to normal neutrino states (see [81] for a review of particle physics results with IceCube). In ice, attenuation lengths of up to a kilometer are observed, depending on the frequency band and the temperature of the ice.

ANITA

Acoustic Detection

The effect is a rapid expansion, which generates a bipolar acoustic pulse with a width of a few 10 μs in water or ice (Fig. 17.22). Another project used a very large US Navy hydrophone array close to the Bahamas [109].

Hybrid Arrays

Across the pencil-like cascade, the radiation propagates within a disc about 10 m thick (the length of the cascade) into the medium. Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or form. , provided you give proper credit to the original author(s) and source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate whether changes have been made.

Spaceborne Experiments

Introduction: Particle Physics from Ground to Space

However, the study of the cosmic radiation carried out in the atmosphere only deals with secondary particles. We will also discuss modern spaceborne high-energy radiation detectors, mainly from the point of view of design characteristics related to the operation in space.

The Space Environment .1 The Neutral Component

The Thermal Environment

Direct Sunlight
Albedo

The Charged Component

The Low Energy Plasma
The Trapped Radiation
Solar Particle Events
Galactic Cosmic Rays

Space Debris

The charged component of the radiation is strongly influenced by the existence of the earth's magnetic field. The global time structure of an SPE is somewhat characteristic (see Fig.18.4), although the detailed structure depends on the evolution of the original solar flare.

Fig. 18.1 Altitude profiles of number density of atomic oxygen at solar minimum (solid line) and solar maximum (dashed line) [12]

Types of Orbits

Space Mission Design .1 The Qualification Program

Vibration and Shock Test
Environmental Tests
EMC Tests
Radiation Hardness Tests

An important part of the qualification process is then the thermal analysis that can be performed with F EA techniques. If the limits are exceeded, the electrical grounding or design of the device must be modified.

Table 18.2 Maximum expected flight levels for a shuttle mission

Design of a Space Particle Detector

Because of the large cost involved, most payloads are not accessible during their life in space. Reliability is the result of design, manufacturing, integration techniques that must be applied from the early stages of load development.

Space Borne Particle Detectors

Magnetic Spectrometers

Cherenkov Ring Imaging detectors to measure the absolute value of the charge,Z, and the velocity;. AMS-01 was the precursor flight to the AMS-02 spectrometer [42] , approved by NASA to be flown to and operated on the International Space Station.

Space Spectrometers Based on a Permanent Magnet

The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer on Its Precursor Flight (AMS-01)

An important difference between ground-based or balloon-based magnetic spectrometers and the space-based version relates to the question of the coupling between the Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic dipole moment. Since the state of charge is not a relevant parameter for balloon spectrometers, superconducting magnets with a significant dipole moment can be used without any problem.

Superconducting Space Spectrometers
Particle Identification

Tracking Detectors
Time of Flight Detector
Transition Radiation Detector
Ring Cherenkov Imaging Detector
Electromagnetic Calorimeters

Gamma Rays Detectors
Gravitational Waves Detectors

Space-Borne GW Detectors
LISA Pathfinder

Future Space Experiments
Balloons Experiments

AMS-02 in the configuration of a permanent magnet has mainly benefited from the longest possible exposure provided by the lifetime of the ISS, which is particularly important in the search for ultra-rare events (Fig.18.16). The GW spectrum extends from frequencies corresponding to the inverse of the age of the universe to several hundred Hz (Fig.18.26).

Fig. 18.11 AMS-01 magnet during vibration tests at the Beijing Institute of Spacecraft Environ- Environ-ment and Engineering in Beijing, China

Cryogenic Detectors

Introduction

Meitner in 1930 [4] to determine the average electron energy in the beta-decay of e210Bi. Meitner was able to determine the average energy of the continuum beta spectrum at 210Bi to 0.337 MeV with an accuracy of 6%.

General Features of Cryogenic Calorimeters

The cubic dependence on temperature shows a strong decrease in the phonon specific heat at low temperatures. 19.5) It is independent of the absorbed energy E, the thermal conductivity of the thermal compound and the time constantτ.

Phonon Sensors

Semiconducting Thermistors
Superconducting Transition Edge Sensors (TES)
Magnetic Sensors

A detailed description of the noise behavior and energy resolution of cryogenic detectors can be found in [39–41]. It is further assumed that the heat capacities of the absorber and the sensor are approximately equal.

Fig. 19.2 TiN X-ray spectra obtained with a cryogenic micro-calorimeter (solid line) from the NIST group (see text) and with a state of the art Si(Li) solid-state device (dashed line) are compared

Quasiparticle Detection

Superconducting Tunnel Junctions (STJ)
Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detector
Superheated Superconducting Granules (SSG)

In this case, the heat capacity C in Eq. 19.6) represents the heat capacity of the absorber. Some of the produced quasiparticles diffuse to the superconducting film S' of STJ with a smaller gap energy2.

Fig. 19.4 The processes in a superconducting tunnel junction (ST) are illustrated

Physics with Cryogenic Detectors .1 Direct Dark Matter Detection

Neutrino Mass Studies

Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay
Direct Neutrino Mass Measurements

Astrophysics

X-Ray Astrophysics
Optical/UV and CMB Astrophysics

WIMP searches with some of the most advanced cryogenic detectors are described below. The following describes some of the most sensitive cryogenic WIMP detectors in operation.

Fig. 19.7 The energy equivalent of the pulse heights measured with the light detector versus those in the phonon detector under electron, photon (e) and neutron (n) irradiation are shown

Applications

In September 2014, the PLANCK team [191] concluded that their very precise dust measurement is consistent with the signal reported by BICEP2. The main advantage of cryogenic calorimeters over traditionally used microchannel plates (MP) is that the former record the total kinetic energy of an accelerated molecule with high efficiency, regardless of its mass, while the efficiency of the latter decreases with increasing mass. due to the reduction of the ionization signal.

Summary

Salmon (reds.), Laetemperatuurdetektors vir neutrino's en donker materie LTD4, Gif-sur-Yvette, Frankryk, Ed. Newbury et al.,Electron Probe Microanalysis with Cryogenic Detectors, in:Cryogenic particle detection, Topics in Applied Physics Vol.

Detectors in Medicine and Biology

Lecoq

Dosimetry and Medical Imaging

Radiotherapy and Dosimetry
Status of Medical Imaging
Towards In-Vivo Molecular Imaging

X-Ray Radiography and Computed Tomography (CT) .1 Different X-Ray Imaging Modalities

Detection System

It requires accurate determination and simulation of the attenuation coefficients in the different tissues along the beam. Radioluminescence spectrum in the visible or near IR range to match the spectral sensitivity of the silicon photodetectors.