33 - I IA U A H " ,
LICH SU - VAN HOA - XA HOI CHAU AU
GIAO DUG GHAU AU TRONG M 6 | QUAN HE VOfl TRIET HQG
Giao due, nhu la mdt phuang thiic de luu giii va truyen thy kien thiic cho ddi sau, da dugc cac nha tu tudng chau Au dac biet quan tam. Cd the ndi, giao dye la ddi tugng nham tdi eua nhieu trao Imi tu tudng Idn d chau Au, ke tir thdi Hy Lap ed dai eho den ngay nay. "Viec cae triet gia can thiep vao giao due khdng phai la ngau nhien ma do mdi lien quan chat che giira triet hgc va giao due"'. Thuc te cho thay, nhiing uu viet ciia giao due d cac nude chau Au chinh la nhirng gia tri dugc vun xdi va chat chiu bdi rat nhieu cac ddng tu tudng, dugc trai nghiem qua thye tien va kinh qua nhieu thach thiic lich sir. Chinh cac nha tu tudng chau Au da cd nhiing ddng gdp vT dai de tao ra mdt dien mao cho giao dye chau Au nhu ngay hdm nay. Bai viet xin gidi thieu khai quat tu tudng giao dye ciia mdt sd triet gia dai dien d chau Au, tir thdi cd dai cho den hien dai.
1. Triet gia Hy Lap co dai noi ve giao due
,..i qmlH u i-ui
Ths. Tran Phirong Hoa Vien Nghien cuu ChduAu Cac triet gia Hy Lap ed dai coi giao dye la mdt ddi tugng quan trgng eho tu tudng,
"cd the khdng phai ndi qua khi cho rang ddi vdi Plato thi triet hgc chinh la triet ly ve giao duc"^. Ban than triet hgc khi giai quyet mdt trong hai van de Idn nhat eiia nd la nhan thiic luan ciing cd nghTa la tim hieu ve qua trinh nhan thiic cua con ngudi, ddng nhat vdi van de cua giao due.
Socrat da coi mdt trong nhiing phuong thirc quan trgng nhat trong giao due la thao luan (discussion). Tren thuc te, nhiing bai giang cua Socrat deu dugc tien hanh dudi hinh thiic thao luan vdi hgc trd ma Plato la mdt trong sd dd. Socrat edn md trudng hge de day thuat hung bien, it nhat la giup cdng dan bao ve minh trude tda an. Dac biet, Socrat da chii trgng den tranh luan ve cac van de lien quan den con ngudi, tam hdn con ngudi. Con ngudi la gi, va con ngudi se di din dau? Danh dy la gi? Dao diic la gi? Ban nga la gi? Dd la nhung van de dao diic va tam ly ma Socrat dat ra. Cac triet gia Hy Lap
' Benjamin Dumville. Philosophy and Education. " Din theo John Wilson. "What Philosophy Can Do Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. Voi 7 (1906- for Education". Canadian Journal of Education Vol 1907). Tr. 200. 13. Noi (1988). Tr. 84.
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NGHIEN CQU CHAU AU - EUROPEAN STUDIES REVIEW N°10 (121).2O10da triet de thuc hanh hinh thirc giao dye thdng qua thao luan, tranh luan, coi dd la each de nang eao kha nang tu bien va trau ddi tu duy. Cudn "Nen cgng hoa" eua Plato la nhirng tranh luan lien tyc giiia cac nhan vat van hgc ve nhieu van de, trong dd cd sieu hinh, than hge, dao diie hgc, tam ly hgc, su pham, chinh tri va tham my, thuyet cdng san va xa hdi, thuyet nam nit binh quyen, thuyet han che sinh san va giao dye .
Plato coi con ngudi hgc tap va con ngudi triet hge cd ehung mdt guong mat: "su yeu thich hgc tap eiing nhu sy yeu thich triet hge"''. Khi ban den giao due, dng eho rang can cd "the dye cho co the va am nhae cho tam hdn". Ngoai ra cdn phai giao dye van hgc bang each ke cho tre em nghe nhiing cau chuyen hay (loai bd nhiing cau chuyen tam thudng). Ong cho rang phai lua chgn nhiing cau chuyen hap dan nhung phai ed y nghTa nham xay dyng cho tre em mdt tam hdn dep.
Theo dng, phai loai bd hoan toan nhiing cau chuyen than thoai ve chien tranh, ve cac vi than vdi nhiing tinh each xau xa. Dac biet dng cho rang can phai hgc toan, khdng phai vi muc tieu tinh toan kinh doanh ma vi "ve dep trang nha ciia toan hgc", vi toan hgc tao ra nhirng ti le "hai hda" va hgc toan "lam cho con ngudi trd nen nhanh nhay hon khi hge tit ea nhiing thii khae; vdi nhirng ngudi cd tri tue cham chap, neu duge hge toan hg se
sic ben hon"^. Mdt sd mdn hgc khac gan vdi toan phai dugc dua ra giang day nhu mon hinh hgc vi mdn nay can cho nghe thuat chien tranh. Tiep theo, thanh nien phai hgc mdn thien van hgc vi nd can cho nghe ndng va dinh hudng khi di chuyen. Nhiing quan diem ve giao dye ciia Plato da duge cac nha giao due hien dai chau Au tiep thu va the hien trong giao due cho den tan ngay nay.
2. Tu tuong ciia cac triet gia chau Au thoi Phuc Hung va Khai Sang " ffiii!
Trong sudt thdi ky Trung cd keo dai mot ngan nam, "khdng cd mdt ly luan giao dye nao dugc neu... Tat ea td chirc nha trudng Trung cd thanh hinh tren mdt qua trinh dien bien cua thye tien, ngoai su can thiep ciia ly luan"*. Vdi sy xuat hien eiia ehu nghTa tu ban, ly luan ve giao dye bimg no ciing vdi sy phat trien manh me cua cac ddng tu tudng.
Budc vao the ky XVI, nhirng phat hien ve nen van minh Hy Lap rye rd da lam ca chau Au chan ddng. Tim each thoat khdi triit hgc kinh vien thdi Trung cd va xay dung nhiing tu tudng mdi tap trung vao con ngudi va cac gia tri vi eon ngudi ma triit hgc Hy Lap da de cao, van dl giao dye dugc nhilu triet gia chau Au quan tam.
La mdt tu sT ngudi Ha Lan, dugc giao due d Phap, Erasme (1469-1536) da sdm dua ' Plato. The Republic. The Millennium Library, 1992.
Co the xem tren
http://www.constitution.org/pla/republic.htm , ; i
"• Plato, sdd, tr. 53
' Plato, sdd, tr. 209.
Durkheim. Evolution pedagogique en France. 1938.
Dan theo Nguyin Manh Tuong. Ly ludn gido due chdu Au. H.: Khoa hgc xa hgi, 1994. Tr.46.
^ao due etidu cAu..
43
ra nhirng quan diem ve cai each Nha thd va giao due, hudng img ldi keu ggi cua Martin Luther^ Erasme da de ra cac phuang phap giang day mdi, sach giao khoa lam co sd cho cac cai each giao dye. Nam 1522, Erasme cho xuat ban sach giao khoa ve viet van (letter-writing), trong dd dng keu ggi "tranh sir dung tir vyng hoa my, sao mdn" va "each tdt nhat de phat trien phong each ty nhien la hgc tap, thuc hanh cham chi va dgc nhieu tac pham eiia eac nha van cd tieng tam nhu Cicero, Pliny, Poliziano" . Sau khi cudn giao khoa ve viet van duge cdng bd, Erasme tiep tue viet sach cho giao due, trong dd ed cudn De copia, "nhu la mdt cudn sach giao khoa chuan myc tren toan viing Bac Au dugc nhieu tac gia sau nay sir dung va cai bien"^.
Giao su Nguyen Manh Tudng da phan tich kha rd nhirng ddng gdp cua Erasme ddi vdi viec xay dung mdt nen giao due chau Au hien dai, trong dd cd viec de ra myc tieu giao due, phuong phap giao dye, ndi dung giao dye. Myc tieu giao dye ma Erasme dl ra la
"ren luyen kha nang dien dat tu tudng hoac bang mieng, hoac bing ngdi biit, nghTa la nghe thuat ndi va vilt"'°. Hien nay, myc tieu nay van dugc theo dudi trong cac khda hgc khai phdng (liberal arts) d cac nude Au My
' Martin Luther (1483-1546) la nha thSn hoc nguoi Due, tu sT dong Augustine, la nh^ cai each ton giao.
Judith Rice Henderson. "Erasmian Ciceronians:
Refeirmation Teachers of Letter-Writing". Rhetorica:
A Journal of the History of Rhetoric, Vol. 10, No 3 1992. Tr. 277.
'' Judith Rice Henderson. Sdd. Tr. 279.
'" Nguyen Manh Tuong. Ly ludn gido due chdu Au.
H.: Khoa hgc xa hgi, 1994. Tr.68.
nham trang bi cho hge sinh, sinh vien cac ky nang co ban trong giao tiep khoa hgc. Ve mat ndi dung, cac thanh nien duge hgc tap vl tri due, ren luyen ve phep xa giao (phii hgp vdi ldi sdng tu san) va diic dye. Ong mong mudn tre em phat trien mdt each ty nhien.
"Dao diic cao quy nhat trong mdt xa hdi van minh la tuan theo chieu hudng thda man cac yeu cau chan chinli, lanh manh, bam sinh trong con ngudi"". Van hgc la mdn hgc ma Erasme het siic chu trgng trong nha trudng, dac biet dng de cao van chuong Hy Lap cd dai, khuyen khich hgc sinh bat chude van phong eiia cac nha van ndi tieng thdi cd dai.
Mac dii mudn rdi xa nen giao due kinh vien ciia Nha thd, Erasme van chua thoat khdi nhiing khudn mau cua Hy Lap, La Ma cd dai. Giao su Nguyen Manh Tudng coi day la han che cua Erasme: "Nguyen tac gan giao due vdi ddi sdng thi diing, nhung neu lai gan qua nen van hda cd dai Hy-La thi sai. Lam the nao dao tao dugc con ngudi mdi cho thdi dai neu ehi giao dye ngudi ta qua nhiing ludng tu tudng xuat hien tir may nghin nam ve trude? „12
Chau Au budc vao the ky XVI vdi ludng gid mdi ciia thdi ky Phyc Hung. Con ngudi trd thanh ddi tugng trung tam ciia khoa hge, nghe thuat, triet hgc va giao dye cd trach nhiem phat trien con ngudi mdt each toan dien. De cd the dao tao mdt con ngudi toan dien, giao due phai bao gdm nhieu yeu
Nguyen Manh Tuong. Sdd. Tr. 69.
• Nguyin Manh Tuang. Sdd. Tr. 71.
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NGHIEN CQU CHAU AU - EUROPEAN STUDIES REVIEW N°10 (121).2010td, trong dd cd Tri due, Diic dye. The due.
Mdt trong nhiing ngudi cd nhieu ddng gdp eho giao due thdi ky Phyc Hung la Rabelais (1494-1553), nha van, nha tu tudng ngudi Phap, ngudi dugc coi la "Erasme ciia Phap"' . Cac tu tudng ve giao dye da dugc Rabelais ehuyen tai trong loat truyen ve Pantagruel and Gargantua. Ciing nhu Erasme, Rabelais da ehe gieu phuang phap giao dye va sach giao khoa thdi Trung cd, khi trudng hgc "tieu phi mat ca mdt quang ddi hoa nien ma chang nham mue tieu nao"' . Rabelais chii truong mdt chuong trinh giao due bach khoa bao gdm nhieu mdn hgc, trong dd chii trgng den cac mdn klioa hgc ty nhien, cac mdn khoa hge xa hdi ed Sir va Luat. Ben canh Tri dye, Rabelais coi Dirc due cd vai trd het siic quan trgng: "Kien thirc ma khdng cd luong tam thi chi tan pha tam tri, day tam tri vao chd tieu vong"'^ Long thuong yeu con ngudi, tinh than tdn su trgng dao, ty trau ddi ban than la nhirng ndi dung ma Rabelais mudn hgc sinh nhan thiic, ren luyen. Rabelais khdng chi ban den ndi dung giao dye ma cdn de ra cac phuang phap giao due hieu qua. Ong cho rang, can phai hge d mgi noi, mgi chd, hgc gan ket vdi cuge sdng va thye hanh. Ong khang dinh ngudn kien thiic quan trgng nhat la sach vd nen phai biet each "dgc" va dgc la mdt ky nang can duge
ren giiia tir nhd. Vdn la mdt nha van, Rabelais da truyen dat nhung tu tudng vl giao due thdng qua tieu thuyet vdi gigng van cham biem, hai hudc. Ong da dinh hudng tdi mdt nen giao dye cd hai hudng cua xa hdi tu ban mang tinh thye tien va phat trien con ngudi toan dien. Tuy nhien vao thdi dai cua minh, Rabelais van chua dinh hinh ve viec giao dye nhan sinh quan "hge xong thanh ngudi nhung con ngudi dd khdng biet minh sinh sdng de lam gi, phyng sy quyen Igi cao quy nao ,16
Ciing sdng trong thdi dai Phuc Hung cua Phap, Montaigne (1533-1592) mdi that sy la mdt nha tu tudng ve giao dye, ban than dng da cd anh hudng nhat dinh ddi vdi nhieu triet gia, trong dd cd Rene Descartes, Pascal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau... La ngudi sinh ra trong mdt gia dinh giau cd, dugc hudng mot nen giao dye hoan hao theo khudn miu thdi Trung cd (hgc hoan toan bang tiing Latinh), dugc tdn vinh trong gidi quy tdc Phap, Montaigne ddng thdi cung trai nghiem nhilu bien cd khi nude Phap roi vao cuge chiln tranh tdn giao'^ Triet hge cua dng dxxcsc due ket nen tii' chinh nhiing kinh nghiem trong cuge song, ve img x\x ciia con ngudi trude nhiing xung dot xa hdi, xung dot tdn giao, phuang cham sdng va tdn tai trong bdi canh xa hdi thieu trat tu va diy bit trie. Trong ly
'^ Raymond Lebegue. Rabelais, the Last of the French Erasmians. Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, Vol 12 (1949), tr. 91 -100.
'"" Raymond Lebegue, sdd, tr. 93. ' • :;'..'
" Dan theo Nguyin Manh Tuong, sdd, tr. 85. . '
Nguyin Manh Tuong. Sdd, tr. 107.
" Cuoc chien tranh ton giao keo dai han 30 nam a Phap (1562-1598) giua nhung nguai theo Thien chiia giao La Ma va nhiJng nguoi theo Tin Lanh cai each da day nuoc Phap vao mot cuoc ngi chiln tan kh6c.
^do due elidu cflu.
45
luan ve giao due, dng chii trgng day cho con ngudi sdng that vdi ban vi cua minh chii khdng phai sdng nhu nhimg dng thanh ma giao due thdi Trung ed hudng tdi. "Trong thdi dai Trung cd, dudi anh hudng cua tdn giao. ngudi ta tim each bien thanh than thanh. Nhung dd la mdt dieu dien cudng vi khdng the bien thanh than duge" . Quan diem nay cua Montaigne da dugc cac nha tu tudng thdi Khai Sang phat trien de nhan thirc rang con ngudi mudn trudng thanh va dinh doat sd phan ciia minh khdng cd each nao khac la phai hgc tap, ren luyen, tu dudng.
Nhirng tu tudng ve giao dye ma Montaigne de xuat tir hon bon tram nam trude day tdi nay van cdn mang dam tinh thdi dai. "Bdn tram nam trude, dng [Montaigne - TPH] da nhan thiy rit rd ring giao due thuc su khong phai la mot qua trinh thy dgng, ma la su tuong tac chii ddng giiia hgc trd va mdi trudng xung quanh"'^. Hien nay, phuang cham ve giao due ciia dng vin dugc ap dung trong trudng hgc phuang Tay, dd la "giao dye nham day cho con ngudi sdng mdt cuge ddi theo thien nhien"^°. Chii truong thuc hien eac chuyin da ngoai (field trip) cua dng dugc cac trudng hgc tuan thii chat che va coi dd la mdt bg phan khdng thi tach rdi khdi chuong trinh. Cung nhu Rabelais, Montaigne mong muln giao dye
* Din theo Nguyin Manh Tuang. Sdd, tr. 126.
Carlo Vacca. A Modern Inquiry into tlie Educationeil Ideas of Montaigne. The Modem Language Journal Vol 39. No 6 (10/1955). Tr. 314.
Dan theo Nguyin Manh Tuang. Sdd, tr. 127.
nhung eon ngudi toan dien thdng qua Thi due, Tri due va Dire due. Ddi vdi tri due, ong phan ddi each hgc nhdi nhet ma chii truong hge tap cd phe phan, xet doan, lua chgn.
Chang han ddi vdi mdn Sir hgc, dng cho rang: "Hgc sir chu yeu la de tim hiiu con ngudi qua guong cac nhan vat qua khir. Sir cdng hien mdt kho tang nguyen lieu vd ciing phong phu ve con ngudi... Hgc sir khdng phai la de biet cae sy kien ma de tim hiiu con ngudi ndi chung, ddng thdi de ren luyen tri xet doan"^'. Ong ciing cho ring tre em can hgc ngoai ngir tir sdm: "Phai day tre hgc tieng nude ngoai tir khi cdn nhd tudi nlu khdng chung se khdng bao gid phat am dugc chuan xac" . Ong phan ddi viec hgc vi nha trudng ma chii truong hgc vi cuge sdng, hgc sinh phai ap dung nhirng dieu thdng thai tir sach vd vao cuge sdng.
Duge sinh ra va nudi dudng trong mdi trudng ciia chu nghTa tu ban dang len, dimg tren lap trudng tu san nhung Montaigne da sdm nhan rd dugc ban chat da man ciia chu nghTa thye dan va cyc lyc len an nhiing hanh ddng vd nhan dao cua thye dan, ddng thdi dirng ve phia nhirng ngudi lao ddng chan ehinh, ea nggi nhiing pham chat hudng thien ciia hg, cho dii hg la nhirng eon ngudi ngheo khd, thieu hgc thirc.
Neu Rabelais va Montaigne la nhiing dai dien cho ly luan giao due chau Au thdi ky Phuc Hung thi John Locke (1632-1704) la
Nt,tr. 135.
'• Din theo Carlo Vacca. Sdd, tr. 317.
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NGHIEN CQU CHAU AU - EUROPEAN STUDIES REVIEW N°10 (1211.2010mdt trong nhirng triet gia - nha giao dye Anh thdi ky dau Khai Sang, ngudi ndi tiep chu nghTa kinh nghiem ciia Rabelais, Montaigne va sdm dua ra tu tudng ve tu do cua con ngudi, tao nen tang cho ly luan giao dye phuong Tay hien dai. John Locke la "ngudi dat nen mdng cho chu nghTa kinh nghiem ciia Anh, chii nghTa duy tam eua Berkeley, chu nghTa hoai nghi eiia Hume, chu nghTa phe phan eua Kant; la ngudi di dau trong nganh tam ly hgc, ngudi da da pha tam ly hgc cd dien eiia Aristotle va thiet lap co sd cho phuang phap quan sat ben trong (introspective method) ma eac nha tam ly hgc hien dai van sir dung; Ong la ngudi md dudng cho ly luan giao dye trong viee dam duong dau vdi phuong phap han lam va nhiing nguyen tac thd cirng ciia nlia trudng va iing hd mdt nen giao dye vi sy phat trien toan dien, tu nhien cua tre tho' .,23
Hai ehuyen luan '""Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (Luan ve nhan thue ciia eon ngudi) (1689) va "Some Thoughts Concerning Education" (Mdt sd suy nghT ve giao dye) (1693) cua Locke ve giao due con ngudi, ve quan diem hinh thanh nhan each cua con ngudi-cdng dan da trd thanh tu tudng din dudng eho giao due hien dai.
Trong Treatise on Government (Chuyen luan vl nha nude) Locke eho rang: "Giao due phai nhim myc tieu tao ra nhirng cdng dan
tdt hon la tao ra nhirng con ngudi tdt" . Nhu nliieu nha giao due khac, dng tan thanh mot nen giao dye toan dien bao gdm tri dye, diic dye, the dye, trong dd dng de cao dire due, dat diic due Ien hang dau va coi tri due "la phan cudi va thu yeu, kien thiic tuy can, nhung chi d miic phy ma thdi"^^ Ong phan ddi viec bat tre sir dung qua nhieu tri nhd khi hgc tap: "Khdng can bat tre phai nhd qua nhieu. Cae dieu ma trd luu y den, lam tro thich thii, neu thay biet trinh bay ed trat tu va phuong phap nhat dinli la hge trd ghi nhd mai, khdng quen dugc" . Cho den ngay nay, nhirng quan diem nay cua John Locke van dugc ap dyng triet de trong giao dye phuang Tay. Mae du eae luan diem ve giao dye ciia Locke gan lien vdi mdt hinh thiie giao due kha dac biet kieu "gia su", mdt thay mdt tro, dae trung eho giao dye danh cho gidi quy tgc va tu san, nliung nhirng tu tudng ciia dng da vugt thdi dai va cdn tran day siic sdng trong
thdi dai ngay nay. . Montesquieu (1689-1755), triit gia Khai
Sang cua Phap, nhan thay mdi quan he khang khit giiia giao due vdi nen chinh tri cua mot dat nude: "Trat ty chinh tri tao ra nin giao due phyc vy cho muc tieu cua nd. Ci cac nha nude quan chu, giao dye tao ra danh du; d eae nha nude cdng hda, giao dye tao ra gia tri; d cac nha nude chuyen chi, giao due tao
'' Bird T. Baldwin. John Locke Contributions lo Educeilion. The Sewanee Review. Vol 21, No 2 (thang 4 nam 1913), tr. 179.
Fletcher F.T.H. Montesquieu and British Education in the Eighteenth Centuiy. The Modern Language Review. Vol 38, No 4, (thang 10/1943). tr, 298.
"^ Din theo Nguyin Manh Tuons;. Sdd, tr 267 -"Nt. ir. 267.
Qiao due eJidu cJtu...
47
ra noi e sg"^''. Trong chuyen luan The Spirit of the Laws (1748), Montesquieu da danh mdt phan (Quyen 4) de viet ve giao dye va gan lien vdi nd la cac kieu nha nude tuong img. Ngay phan dau Quyen 4 nay, dng viet:
"Nguyen tac ve giao due la thii dau tien ma chiing ta phai nam bat dugc. Vi giao due chuan bi cho eudc sdng cdng dan, mdi gia dinh rieng le phai dugc dieu hanh bdi mdt ke hoach chung rdng Idn bao triim len tat ca" . Chinh la vi giao due se dao tao nen nhiing cdng dan sdng trong xa hdi ciia mdt the ehe chinh tri nhat dinh, cac nguyen tae giao due dugc quy dinh bdi the ehe chinh tri do.
"Trong xa hdi quan chu, danh dy ddng mdt vai trd quan trgng... Danh dy cd mdt sd nguyen tac tdi thugng ma ngudi ed giao due phai tuan thii. Nguyen tac quan trgng nhat la dugc phep dinh gia cho tai san nhung khdng dugc phep dinh gia cho cuge sdng; Nguyen tac thir hai la khi duge thang chirc tudc, [ngudi cd giao due - TPH] khdng bao gid dugc phep the hien rang hg khdng xiing dang vdi vi tri dd; Nguyen tae thii ba la cd mot s i dieu ma danh du da cam ngat thi dd la nhiing thii khdng bao gid dugc mang tdi, dii luat phap khdng ngan cim"^^. Montesquieu da
: l f . l ' : iTirl
' " Fletcher dan theo The Spirit of the Laws (IV, i), , Sdd, tr. 298. Co the xem The Spirit of the Laws, Book 4: That the Laws of Education Ought to Be in ( Relation to the Principles of Government tren
http://www.lonang.com/exlibris/montesquieu/sol- 04.htm
The Spirit of the Laws, Book 4.
' http://www.lonang.com/exlibris/montesquieu/snl- 1 04.htm
" Montesquieu. Sdd.
sdm td thai do phe phan che do ehuyen chi va nen giao due ciia nd: "Neu giao dye trong che do quan chu ea tung tri tue thi cae nha nude chuyen che tim each ha thap nd. Dudi che do nay, giao due chi nham tao nen nhung ke biet nghe ldi". Trong khi dd, dng iing hd che do cdng hda ciing giao due ciia no:
"Chinh trong the che cdng hda, giao due mdi phat huy dugc toan bd sirc manh ciia nd...
Gia tri [ma giao dye dem lai - TPH] ed the dugc hieu la tinh yeu ddi vdi luat phap va vdi dat nude. Tinh yeu nay ddi hdi ca lgi ich cdng cgng lan rieng tu nen nd la ngudn gdc ciia mgi gia trj ca nhan"^°. Tuong tu nhu John Locke, Montesquieu coi mue tieu ciia giao due la dao tao nhirng cdng dan mau muc phii hgp vdi mdt xa hdi nhat dinh ma dng coi la "mdt dai gia dinh Idn".
Cac nha tu tudng giao dye the ky XVI, XVII da ed ddng gdp khdng nhd de tao da cho the ky XVIII dugc coi la "thdi dai cua giao duc"^' vdi hai ngudi khdng Id la Jean- Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) va Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
Rousseau la ngudi cd ddng gdp to Idn ddi vdi phong trao Khai Sang ciia chau Au, gay anh hudng sau sac ve tu tudng ddi vdi cuge Cach mang Phap 1879 va dac biet cdn la mdt nha giao dye, dat nen mdng cho "ky
^"Nt.
^' Henrich Kanz. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education (Paris, UNESCO; International Bureau of Education), Vol XXllI, No 'A, 1993, xem tren www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/kante.
PDF, 1999, tr. 1.
48
NGHIEN COU CHAU AU - EUROPEAN STUDIES REVIEW N°10 (121).2O10nguyen ve su pham" d the ky XVIII. Khac vdi cac nha tu tudng ve giao dye trude dd, Rousseau da lay tre em lam ddi tugng cho triet ly ve giao dye cua minh, lam "tam diem cho qua trinh giao dye"'''^. Tu tudng vl giao dye cua Rousseau dugc the hien rd nhat qua tieu thuyet Emile hay Id vi gido duc^\ Ra ddi trong bdi canh ca chau Au dang "Ien con sdt ve giao dye", cudn Emile cua Rousseau van khien du luan chau Au phai bat ngd ve nhiing tu tudng ddc dao cua minh, dii dng ty nhan la ke thira va chiu anh hudng rat nhieu ciia nhiing triet gia di trude nhu Montaigne, John Locke. Rousseau dugc coi la cha de ciia cac trao luu giao dye cap tien ciia the ky XX, chang han Trao luu Trudng hgc Hien dai (the Modem School movement) hay trao luu Trudng hgc Ty do (Free School movement)^''. -^i ; ;), • •.••, ... ,
Neu phan Idn cac nha giao due trude dd deu coi myc tieu giao due la dao tao ra nhiing cdng nhan mau myc cho xa hdi thi Rousseau lai cho rang viec giao due nen mdt con ngudi kep (con ngudi va cdng dan) la
"sy nhgc cdng udng phi" bdi vi: "Sy giao
" Michel 5oetard. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712- 1778). Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), Vol XXIV, No 'A, 1994, xem tren
http://www.ibe.unesco.0rg/publications/ThinkersPdf/r ousseaue.PDF, 1999, tr. 1.
^' Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Emile hay la ve gido dud Le H6ng Sam, Trin Qu6c Duong dich, Biii Van Nam Son gioi thieu. H.: Tri thuc, 2010, 689 trang.
^* Scott Walter. The 'Flaw Parent: A Reconsideration of Rousseau's « Emile » and Its Significance for Radical Education in the United States. British Journal of Educational Studies. Vol.44, No 3 (Thang 9/1996), tr. 160. ,• ' ~=-
dye nay hudng ve hai myc dich tuong phan ma Id ca hai: sy giao due hdng tao nen mot con ngudi kep ludn ra ve dem lai tat ca cho ngudi khae, song bao gid ciing chi mang lgi cho rieng minh ma thdi... Toan thien ha deu the ca, nen chang lira dugc ai" . Rousseau de xuat mdt nen giao dye hudng con ngudi tdi sy phat trien ty nhien chii khdng phai giao dye de con ngudi thuc hien mdt chiic nang nhat dinh nao dd trong xa hdi: "Neu mdt ca nhan dugc dao tao cho vi tri cua anh ta ma ra khdi vi tri ay, anh ta khdng con thich hgp cho viec gi niia het"^^. Rousseau neu myc tieu cua giao due: "Viec hgc tap dich thye eua chiing ta la hgc tap ve than phan eon ngudi. Theo tdi, ai trong chung ta biet chiu dyng tdt hon ca cac dieu hay dieu dd cua cuoc ddi nay la ngudi dugc giao due tdt hon ca; tir dd ma thay rang sy giao due dich thye la d trong luyen tap"^^. Cudn sach day gan 700 trang cho den nay van la cam nang cho eac nha giao due hien dai, noi rat nhieu cac luan diem giao dye cho tre tho tir khi mdi Igt Idng den 12 tudi duge dua ra mot each ddc dao. Cudn "Emile" da lam Kant thye su rung ddng va "Lin diu tien trong cuoc ddi minh, Kant da bd thdi quen thudng nhat cua dng de danh thdi gian dgc cuon sach mdt mach. Diy la mdt biin cd trong ddi dng, khi gap d day mdt ngudi thii hai dang dd dim tim dudng ra khdi bdng tdi ciia v6 than va manh dan qua quylt su uu thing ciia
Jean Jacques Rousseau. Sdd. Tr. 37.
' Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Sdd. Tr. 38.
'Nt. ^
^do due ell an cJlu...
49
cam thirc tren ly tri trong nhirng van de sieu cam giac nay" . Tuy nhien, quan diem chuyen mue tieu giao due tre em thanh mot cdng dan thye hien nhirng nghTa vu nhat dinh trong xa hgi sang dinh hudng de tre em phat trien ty nhien, biet ty phdng ve va hdi nhap vao bdi canh ty nhien ciia xa hgi ciia Rousseau khdng dugc nhieu nha giao due tan thanh, dae biet, nd da khien mdi quan he giira dng vdi Volter (1694-1777), vdn chii truong con ngudi trong xa hdi hon han eon ngudi trong ty nhien, ran mit nghiem trgng.
Neu Rouseau da lam mot cuge each mang trong su pham khi lay tre em lam ddi tugng cho qua trinh giao due vdi tat ca nhiing dac diem cua diia tre tir the chat, tam ly, tinh cam cho den tri tue thi Kant la ngudi da sir dung nhirng phat hien ciia Rousseau vl tre em de dua ra nhirng triit ly tdng quan vl giao due. Khdng chi la mdt triit gia vT dai, Kant cdn la mot chuyen gia va nha nghien ciiu ve giao dyc^'. Tac gia ciia nhirng bg sach kinh dien ve triet hgc nay "la mdt trong sd rat it ngudi khang dinh ring nin su pham chan chinh phai liy triit hgc lam co sd"'*°.
Nhimg tu tudng vl giao due cua dng thi hien rd trong Critical Philosophy va Lecture Notes on Pedagogy (Nhung ghi chep bai giang ve su pham).
Will Durant. Cdu chuyen triit hoc Djch gia: Tri Hal va Buu Dich. Chuong VI: Immanuel Kant va Duy tdm ludn Dirc. H.: Van hoa Thong tin, 2008.
"' Henrich Kanz. Sdd. tr. 2. "
Dan theo Roseler R.O. Principles of Kant's Educational Theory. University of Wisconsin Press.
Manatshefte. Vol 40, No5 (thang 5/1948). Tr. 279.
Kant coi giao dye la hoat ddng sing cdn cho su phat trien eiia xa hdi loai ngudi. Do eon ngudi ludn cd thien hudng ty do nen tir nhd da phai hge de chap nhan su sai bao ciia ly tri, con ngudi ehinh la do giao due tao dyng nen'*'. Kant da dat giao due trong toan bg triet ly ve sy phat trien ciia xa hdi loai ngudi. "Loai ngudi chi cd the trd nen hoan thien thdng qua thuc hanh giao dye qua nhieu the he vdi nhirng budc tien rat cham chap... Hy vgng duy nhat eua chiing ta la mdi the he, dugc trang bi kien thiie bdi nhiing ngudi di trude, ngay cang cd kha nang tien hanh mdt nen giao due nham phat trien nhiing thien tinh cua hg theo mdt ti le can thiet trong mdi tuong quan tdi myc tieu tdi cao cua loai ngudi... Do dd con ngudi phai hgc, khdng phai chi cho ban than hg, cho hien tai, ma cho tuong lai tdt dep hon cua ca loai ngudi""*^. Theo Kant, giao dye la phuang tien de thye hien muc tieu toi thugng: su hoan thien cua dao dire, dieu ma ca xa hdi loai ngudi dang hudng tdi. Theo Kant, eon ngudi se dat den sy hoan thien dd, nhung vi nhan thiie con ngudi cdn cd gidi han nen con ngudi khdng biet dugc khi nao sy hoan thien dd hien hiiu. Dilu dd diy con ngudi vao mdt qua trinh phin diu khdng biit met mdi de dat tdi sy hoan mT cua dao diic.
Ciing tuong ty nhu trong triit hgc vl dao dire, trong dd y chi (good will) ddng vai trd then chdt, diem nhan cho toan bg he thdng
Dan theo Henrich Kanz. Sdd, tr. 5.
Din theo Roseler R.O. Sdd. Tr. 281.
50
NGHIEN CLTU CHAU AU - EUROPEAN STUDIES REVIEW N°10 (121).2010giao dye cua Kant la phai hanh ddng, phai no lyc, phai thye hanh de con ngudi the hien dugc y chi cua minh trong dd va dao dire la nen tang quan trgng nhat cua hoat ddng giao dye. "Con ngudi ed the dugc vun dap ve the lyc, ve tri tue nhung neu thieu van hda dao diie, anh ta se chi la mdt ke xau xa"'* . Vao thdi dai cua minh, Kant da nhan xet: "Chiing ta sdng trong ky nguyen eua nguyen tac, van hda va sy tao nha, nhung chiing ta phai vugt qua mdt chang dudng Idn nira mdi tdi duge ky nguyen cua dao tao dao dire", trong khi dd "Nd lyc dau tien trong giao due dao diic la hinh thanh tinh each"'*'*. Tinh each, theo Kant, chinh la su kien dinh myc tieu va nang lyc xac lap muc tieu, kien tri theo dudi muc tieu lua chgn va vugt qua dugc thach thirc.
"Tinh each chinh la san sang hanh ddng theo phuang cham dat ra, lire dau la nhirng phuong cham cua nha trudng va sau nay la phuong cham ciia nhan loai. Thoat dau dira tre tuan thii cac quy tac. Phuang cham ciing la quy tac, nhung la nhimg quy tac mang tinh chu quan"'*^. Kant cho rang tinh each khdng phai la mdt mdn qua cua ty nhien ma dugc hinh thanh qua mdt qua trinh thdng qua giao dye. "Con ngudi chi cd the trd thanh mdt hiru thi dao diic khi ly tri cua anh ta phat triln thanh tu tudng vl trach nhiem va luat phap". Con ngudi phai dugc day ve ly tri cao quy va dugc phep thye hanh tu do ndi tai cua tinh each. Ddi vdi diia tre, ly tri cdn chua
may phat trien, chung phai hgc theo ly tri ben ngoai, tiic la chung duge day phai lam quen dan vdi viee tuan thu cac quy luat khach quan ma gia dinh va trudng hgc de ra.
Mac dii su tuan thu ty nguyen eiing quan trgng, nhung su tuan thu "tuyet ddi" la can thiet de ren luyen mdt dira tre "biet tuan theo phap luat nhu sau nay chiing se phai thuc hien vdi vai trd eiia cdng dan, dii chiing khdng thich nhu the"''^. Theo Kant, diia tre cdn phai hgc each "tdn trgng quyen eua ngudi khae, va phai the hien dieu dd trong hanh ddng cua minh". ^ ,,.,i ,,?.
Kant coi giao dye cd tam quan trgng dac biet, ngang vdi van de nhan thire luan. Xuat phat tir chu thuyet cho rang ca loai ngudi dang hudng tdi mdt xa hdi dao dire hoan thien, duge thue day bdi "thien chi" (good will), Kant cho rang giao dye se giiip eon ngudi cimg hudng tdi nhirng muc tieu chung, trong dd muc tieu dao diic dugc dat len hang dau. Tu tudng cua Kant da duge nhilu hge gia sau nay nghien ciiu, trong dd cd John Dewey (1859-1952) va Michel FoucauU (1926-1984), hai triit gia tieu bilu thdi ky hien dai, hai nha tu tudng v l giao due, diu lay Kant lam de tai luan an tiin sT cua minh.
3. Tir tirdng giao due cua chii nghia Mac
"^Nt. Tr.283.
** Nt. Tr. 286.
"' Nt. Sdd. Tr. 286.
"Mac chua bao gid tryc tiip viit vl giao due nhung dng cd anh hudng Idn ddi vdi cac nha van, nha khoa hgc, tri thirc va nha giao
,V;h i l l / ' Nt. Tr. 286. :.:f\mi) coin .ui^iov .;(•,
^do due elidu c4u... lf]liT2 HA ; iCSu;
51
duc"^^ Cuge hgp Dai hdi ddng Lien hiep Cdng nhan qudc te ngay 10 thang 8 nam 1869 la mdt trong nhiing dip hiem hoi Mae dl cap true tiep den giao due. Md dau bai phat bilu, dng ndi: "Van de nay [giao dye - TPH] la hit siic khd khan. Mot mat, dl thilt lap mdt he thdng giao dye dung dan, phai thay ddi xa hdi, mat khac, de thay ddi xa hdi phai cd mdt he thdng giao due diing dan; do dd chiing ta phai biet khdi dau tir chd nao" . Trong bai phat bieu nay, Mae cd phe phan mdt sd md hinh giao due cua My (ma dng cho la qua cue bd dia phuong), cua Phd (theo ong la chi danh de dao tao nen nhiing ngudi linh). Ngoai viec tan ddng mdt sd diem da dugc Hgi ddng nhat tri la can phai ket hgp giao due tri lyc vdi hoat dgng the chat va dao tao ky thuat, Mac nhan manh: "Khdng dugc dua vao trudng hge tu tudng am ehi dang phai va giai cap. Chi duge dua nhiing mdn hgc nhu khoa hge vat ly, ngir phap... vao trudng hgc. Quy tac ngii phap khong kliae biet giira nhiing ngudi theo tdn giao hay nhirng ngudi theo phai ty do... Nhiing mdn hgc gay ra nhirng nhan dinh khac biet cin phai bi loai bd khdi trudng hgc.""*^
^ Burke Barry (2000). 'Karl Marx and informal education', the encyclopaedia of informal education, www.infed.org/thinkers/el-niarx.htm.
Bai phat bieu ciia Mac ve giao due "On General Ediicalion" tai phien hgp Dai hgi d6ng Lien minh Cong nhan quoc te (ngay 10/8/1869) dugc dua len trang web
http://www.marxists.0rg/hist0rv/intemati0nal/ivvma/d ocuments/1869/education-speech.htm
Tuong tu nhu Mac, Lenin eiing khdng di sau vao cae van de giao dye. Tai Hdi nghi toan Nga ve Giao due (ngay 28 thang 8 nam 1918), Lenin da danh phan Idn bai phat bieu de ndi ve nhirng khd khan cua nha nude Xd viet non tre sau Cach mang Thang Mudi, trong dd ed viec phai xay dyng mdt nen giao due mdi thay the eho nen giao due tu san trude dd: "Giao due la mdt phan ciia cuge dau tranh ma chiing ta phai tien hanh. Chiing ta ed the xda bd thdi dao diic gia va ddi tra va thay bang su trung thye... Bgn tu san cang tu cho la cd van hda thi chiing cang lira ddi mdt each tinh vi khi tuyen bd rang trudng hgc cd the diing tren chinh tri va phuc vu toan xa hdi. Tren thuc te, trudng hgc da bien thanh cdng cu thdng tri ciia giai cap tu san.
Chung ta tuyen bd mdt each cdng khai rang giao dye ma tach khdi eudc sdng va ehinh tri la gia ddi va dao dirc gia. Cae cong nhan dang khao khat tri thiic bdi vi hg can tri thirc de chien thang. Chin trong sd mudi cdng nhan nhan thay rang tri thirc chinh la vii khi trong eudc dau tranh giai phdng, rang that bai ciia hg la do thieu giao due va gid day chinh hg la ngudi quyet dinh md dudng den giao due eho tat ca mgi ngudi... Hg hge tir kinh nghiem cua chinh minh, tir nhirng that bai va sai lam va hg thay dugc giao due la yeu td sdng cdn cho thang lgi cudi ciing trong cuge dau tranh ciia hg"'' .
' Ckc Mkc. Sdd. tl> loY .«3ibli)^
'" Bai phat bieu cua Lenin tai Hgi nghi toan Nga ve giao due ngay 28 thang 8 nam 1918, xem http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/i918/au g/28.htm
52
NGHIEN COU CHAU AU • EUROPEAN STUDIES REVIEW N°10 (121).2O104. Tir tu-oTig giao due thdi hien dai - Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
Foucault la triet gia, nha tu tudng ngudi Phap gay nhieu tranh cai nhat trong gidi hgc thuat duong dai. Ong la ngudi theo dudi chu nghTa cau true, chu nghTa hien dai, hau hien dai va rdi ty ban than xa rdi nhirng trudng phai nay va phu nhan viec cd lien quan den bat Cli mdt trao luu tu tudng nao. Foucault ciing dugc thira nhan da ed nhieu ddng gdp cho giao dye, du khdng ed nhieu tae gia nghien ciiu ve Foucault nhu mdt nha giao dye hgc^'. Trong tuyen tap eac bai viet Foucault and Education: Disciplines and Knowledge (1990)^^ (Foucault va giao due:
cac nganh hge va tri thiic) cae nha nghien cim da nhin nhan cac nghien cim ciia Foucault dudi mdt phd he da dang va phong phii ciia de tai lien quan den giao due. Chin bai viet trong cudn sach dugc sap xep dudi ba chuyen de: 1) Foucault va giao due; 2) Lich sir, quyen lyc va tri thiic; 3) Dien ngdn va chinh tri. Cac chu de dugc ban tdi lien quan tdi nhieu van de, tir "Genealogy of the Urban School Teacher" (in 19"^- century England) (Pha he cua giao vien viing dd thi (d nude Anh the ky 19)) cho den "Education and the Right's discursive politics: private versus state schooling" (Giao dye va chinh
" Deacon, Roger. Michel Foucault on education: a preliminary theoretical overview. South African Journal of Education. Vol 26(2), 2006. tr. 177.
^" Ball, Stephan (ed). Foucault and Education:
Disciplines and Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1990.
tri mang tinh ly tri) d nude Ue duong dai.
Trong khi Marshall cho ta mdt cai nhin toan dien ve Foucault va giao dye trong
"Foucault and educational research"
(Foucault va nghien ciiu ve giao dye) thi Jones gidi thieu mdt de tai mang tinh khu biet: "Thuc tien giao due va tri thiic khoa hgc: tai kien giai mang tinh pha he ve sy troi day cua nganh sinh ly hgc d nude Phap sau Cach mang". Mac dii mdi quan tam ciia Foucault ddi vdi giao dye xuat hien mugn hon nhieu so vdi cac de tai khac nhu tri thiic, sire khde, tam ly, tdi pham, trirng phat, tinh duc^ , dng van dugc coi la ngudi dan dat tu tudng giao dye duong dai. Foucault da md ra cho eae nha nghien ciiu giao dye mdt each tiep can mdi, hay ndi dung hon la mdt quan diem ddi vdi nghien eiiu: "Tdi khdng muon nhung gi tdi viet hoac ndi ra dugc coi la toan dien. Tdi khdng cd gang khai quat hda nhirng gi tdi ndi... Tdi mudn md ra mdt khoang khdng cho nghien ciiu, neu khdng thuc hien duge thi lai cd gang tim kiem ket qua d noi khac... Tdi van dang lam viec va cdn chua biet lieu tdi cd tiep tue tim kiem cho nao khae nira khdng"^'*. n, .o :i..oi
• • • . • » ) i i
Roger Deacon cho rang Foucault chi that sir quan tam din giao due vao cu6i nhung nam 1960 - diu nhiJng nam 1970, sau khi ong len lam Chu nhiem Khoa Triit tai truong Dai hgc Vincennes va dugc dl cir lam Chu tich tai College de France/ Deacon, Roger. Sdd, tr. 178.
Dan theo Ball, Stephan. Intellectuals or Technicians? The Urgent Role of Theory in Educational Studies. British Journal of Educational Studies. Vol 43, No3 (thang 9/1995). Tr. 256.
^do due eliuu cAn...
53
Quan diem cua Foucault da giiip cac nha nghien cim ve giao dye duong dai tim dugc
"khdng gian" mdi, thoat khdi anh hudng day sire ep cua eac nha Khai Sang va ciia triet ly giao due nhirng the ky trude. Nhirng hudng tiep can mdi ciia Foucault nhu phan tich dien ngdn cd phe phan, tinh dye hgc da tiep them ngudn sinh khi mdi cho cac ludng tu tudng giao due.
Phan tich dien ngdn phe phan cd ngudn goc tir ba trao luu tu tudng hien dai cd lien quan den su trd lai ciia ngdn ngii trong khoa hge xa hdi: Thic nhdt la nghien eiru dien ngon ma Foucault va Derrida la nhung dai dien tieu bieu; Thie hai la chii nghTa hau cau tnic nir quyen (feminist post-structuralism);
va Ngdn ngir phe phan^^ Trao luu phan tieh dien ngdn phe phan xuat hien trong nhieu ITnh vuc, chang han nhu dien ngdn chinh tri, dien ngdn ve he tu tudng, sac tdc, kinh tl, quang cao, ve gidi, giao due. Co the thiy ten eiia rat nhieu tap chi cd lien quan din trao luu nay nhu Language and Politics; Critical Inquiries in Language Studies, Critical Discourse Studies, Linguistics and Education; Language and Society; Discourse and Society...^^.
Ngoai viec de xuat nhiing hudng tiip can mdi ddi vdi giao dye, ban than Foucault
Rogers R., Malancharuvil-Berkes E., Mosley M., Hul D., Joseph G.O. Critical Discourse Analysis In Education A Review of the Literature. Review of Educational Research. Vol 75, No3 (Autumn ^005) Tr 367.
Rogers R. Malancharuvil-Berkes, Mosley, Hui.
Sdd, tr. 383.
true tiep nghien ciiu giao dye vdi ba he dl tai chinh: lich sir ve trudng hgc mang tinh
"ehinh saeh-ky thuat"; co che hang ngay ciia nha trudng nhu "sy dieu chinh dao dirc"; va md hinh giao diic nhu "khdi lien ket nang lyc - giao tiep - quyen luc"'^ Ban than Foucault da ban den rat nhieu ky nang trong giang day hien dai nhu mdi quan he giira giao vien va hgc sinh, van de lay hge sinh lam trung tam, cac hinh thiic td chirc lap hgc (thuyet giang hay seminar, hgc theo nhdm, hay tutoring (phu dao, day kem). Trong mdi quan he giiia giao vien va hgc sinh, mac dii Foucault cho rang phai tranh gay dp dat ciia giao vien ddi vdi hgc sinh, nhung ve thye chat, quyen luc ciia giao vien dugc the hien dudi nhieu hinh thuc khac nhau nhu giam sat, binh thudng hda, phan loai, phan phdi, ca biet hda, khai quat hoa, dieu phdi... Foueauh da md ra nhieu hudng mdi cho nghien cim giao due hien dai, dac biet trong ITnh vyc thye hanh giang day, hgc tap, td chiic nha trudng.
Tren quan diem giao dye la mdt qua trinh md, eac nha tu tudng giao dye chau Au van tiep tuc tim kiem nhirng giai phap hiiu hieu nhat de hoan thien he thdng giao dye vi con ngudi, hudng con ngudi tdi mdt the gidi ngay eang hoan my.
Deacon Roger. Sdd, tr. 178.
