MW (Rydell et al. 2010a), but some of these studies did not control for carcass removal and searcher performance. In the Western Cape, South Africa, Aronson et al. 2013) reported only one carcass of Cape serotine.
Habitat Relationships
Baerwald and Barclay (2011) hypothesized that because autumn migrations occur from north to south, higher mortality rates would be expected at the more northerly turbines first encountered by migrating bats. At the landscape scale, Baerwald and Barclay (2009) found both higher bat activity and mortality rates at wind facilities near the Rocky Mountain foothills compared to eastern prairie grasslands.
Climate and Weather Variables
Interestingly, none of the measured variables except falling barometric pressure affected either gray bat activity or mortality (Baerwald and Barclay 2011). Again, this could be due to a decrease in barometric pressure that triggers insect flight activity and may therefore motivate bat foraging efforts by indicating a potential increase in food availability (Wellington 2011).
Offshore Wind Facilities
They also observed that falling barometric pressure and the number of deaths were related, and that while silver-haired bat deaths increased with increased activity of the species, moonlight and southeasterly winds, bat mortality increased. mostly with the fall. barometric pressure. They also suggested that a method for predicting mortality at existing and planned offshore wind facilities would be required to understand impacts and develop mitigation strategies, because finding and retrieving dead birds and bats from water bodies would be a considerable challenge (Arnett et. al. 2007; Arnett 2012).
Estimating Risk
2014) further investigated the habitat association as a surrogate for assessing the risks of wind facilities to bat migration and travel in Italy. Using species distribution models, they found that most corridors used by bats were concentrated in an area where existing (54%) and planned (72%) wind facilities would interfere with important corridors that connected the western and eastern parts of the region.
Cumulative Impacts
Importantly, the context of wind turbine fatalities remains poorly understood, in part because few population data exist for most bat species (O'Shea et al. 2003), hampering understanding of population-level impacts as well as mitigation effectiveness. . measures. Population estimates are lacking for most bat species worldwide, and some bat populations are suspected or known to be declining (e.g., Frick et al.
Mitigating Bat Mortality
The proposed algorithms may therefore be unsuitable for other locations with diverse geographic and topographic features, bat communities and turbine types (Voigt et al. 2015a). Other approaches to mitigating bat mortality have been proposed, including projecting electromagnetic signals from small, portable radar units (Nicholls and Racey 2009) and ultrasonic transmissions (Arnett et al. 2013b).
Conservation Policy
Mitigation studies have shown that bat mortality can be significantly reduced (e.g., Baerwald et al. 2009; Arnett et al. 2011). Regulatory authorities in the US state of Pennsylvania and the Canadian province of Ontario set thresholds for the initiation of curtailment based on the annual average number of bats killed per turbine (28 and 10 bat deaths/turbine, respectively, Arnett et al. 2013c).
Future Directions
However, wind energy developers must be treated fairly and consistently to ensure that proactive measures are implemented. Thomas Kunz for all his wisdom, knowledge and efforts regarding the impact of wind energy on bats.
Cryan PM, Barclay RMR (2009) Causes of bat mortality in wind turbines: hypotheses and predictions. Fricker PD, Bonaccorso FJ, Johnson DH, Heist K, Dalton DC (2014) Bat behavior at wind turbines.
Exploitation of Bats for Bushmeat and Medicine
Introduction
Most of the chapters in this book (Voigt and Kingston 2016) consider the negative consequences for bats from the indirect effects of anthropogenic disturbances. Most of the chapter discusses conservation needs in light of what is known about bat hunting.
Background
- Overview of Bat Hunting
- Hunting Overview by Region
- Africa
- Asia
- Pacific (Oceania)
- South America
In total, 55 bat species have been hunted in Africa, including mainly large-bodied fruit bats (Mickleburgh et al. 2009) such as E. In Bangladesh, large fruit bats are hunted for food by members of groups tribal (Mickleburgh et al. 2009).
Why Bat Hunting is a Conservation Problem
- Negative Impacts on Bat Populations and Ecosystems
- Negative Impacts on Humans
In contrast, the same bat species are rarely eaten in the neighboring Federated States of Micronesia (Mickleburgh et al. 2009). Bat meat is also a delicacy in the Cook Islands, Niue and Raratonga (Brooke and Tshapka 2002) and is a popular food in Fiji, New Caledonia and Vanuatu (Mickleburgh et al. 2009).
Overhunting as a Growing Concern for Conservation
Using Old World fruit bats as an example, in the first review hunting was not considered a threat to most (60%) of the hunted species (Mickleburgh et al. 1992). Seven hunted bat species previously thought to be unaffected by hunting (Mickleburgh et al. 1992) now have hunting listed as a major threat (IUCN 2014).
How Hunting Affects Bats
- Expert Opinion
- Determining Hunting Impacts on Bat Populations
- Measuring Hunting Mortality Rates
- Estimating Hunting Impact from Population Declines
Conservation recommendations for most hunted bat species are based on observed relationships between apparent bat population declines and levels of hunting that appear to be unsustainable (eg, Pteropus flanneryi, Helgen et al. 2008a). The study of typhoon impacts on hunting levels in the Mariana Islands used a local hunter to collect data from other hunters (Esselstyn et al. 2006).
Conservation Management to Mitigate Hunting Impacts
- Enforcement of Hunting Prohibition
- Regulated Hunting
- Control of Guns, Ammunition, and Other Bat Hunting Tools
- Roost Site Protection
- Education and Awareness Raising
- Knowledge
- Behavior—Local Commitment to Conservation of Bats and Bat Habitat
- Capacity Building of Local Rangers/PA Managers
- Stakeholder Engagement and Citizen Science
One of the first steps to sustaining the management of hunted bats is educating local communities. In Kenya and Nigeria, EMN scientists and volunteers conduct educational programs in schools (Figure 12.3) and among the general public (Tanshi et al. 2013).
Recommendations for Conservation of Hunted Bats .1 More Research is Needed to Understand Hunting
- Research to Understand How to Protect Bats
- Education/Outreach
- Protect Colony Locations at the Roost
- Regulated Hunting
- Encourage Local Researchers and NGO’s
If successful roost conservation programs could be demonstrated and published, these could be used as models for other areas (e.g. P. rufus populations in Madagascar – M. Ralisata pers. comm.; P. vampyrus in Malaysia, M. Gumal , press release; P. vampyrus and A. jubatus populations in the Philippines, SOS 2012). Some roost protection campaigns are even successful because hunting outside roosts is not discussed or prohibited, making it easier for hunters to respect roost sanctuaries (T. Mildenstein pers. obs.; SOS 2012).
Conclusion
Along with conservation-focused research, public education and capacity building of local managers should also be encouraged to counter what is clearly a major threat to bat populations in the Old World tropics. Local managers can be empowered to track bat conservation and hunting with training in the simple and inexpensive field techniques needed to monitor bat population abundance, and these local actors are key to establishing programs of stable monitoring.
Appendix. List of Hunted Bat Species Showing Primary Use (Food or Medicine), Summarized by Region and Country
Hunting has led to the loss of four bat species in the last few decades. List of hunted bat species showing primary use (food or medicine), summary by region and country.
We Followed IUCN Regional Classification
Dougnon TJ, Djossa BA, Youssao I et al (2012) Bats as bushmeat in Benin: carcass yield and meat quality of the fruit bats Eidolon helvum (Kerr, 1792) and Epomophorus gambianus (Ogilby, 1835). Downloaded 18 March 2015 Saéz AM, Weiss S, Nowak K et al (2015) Investigating the zoonotic origin of the West African.
The Conflict Between Pteropodid Bats and Fruit Growers: Species, Legislation
Introduction
This phytophagous diet results in the valuable ecosystem services of pollination and seed dispersal (Kunz et al. 2011). Despite the documented benefits of bats, there is still a negative attitude towards them in the general public (Marshall 1983; Fujita and Tuttle 1991; Kunz et al. 2011).
The Extent of Feeding by Bats on Fruit Crops and Its Implications
- The Mediterranean
- Africa and the Indian Ocean
- Indian Subcontinent
- Southeast Asia
- Australia and Papua New Guinea
- The Pacific
Sri LankaYapa dkk. 1999) Rousettus leschenaultiiSri LankaYapa dkk. 1999) Pteropus dasymallus Jepang (Ryukyu) Vincenot dkk. Syzygium cuminiJambul/JamunPteropus giganteusMyanmarWin en Mya (2015) PakistanRoberts (1997) Pteropus lyleiThailandWeber dkk. 2015)b Pteropus voeltzkowi (slegs blomme)Tanzania (Pemba)Entwistle and Corp (1997)b Syzygium jambosRose ApplePteropus giganteusMyanmarWin en Mya (2015) Pteropus lyleiThailandWeber dkk.
Food-Borne Zoonotic Disease Risk from Pteropodid Bats
In Japan, previous studies on the Ryukyu flying fox (Pteropus dasymallus) focused on diet and did not report any conflict with humans (e.g. Funakoshi et al. 1993;). Preventive measures are used to block bats' access to the sap collection pots of date palms. and reduce the risk of Nipah virus transmission (Nahar et al. 2010).
Legislative Approach to Reducing Pteropodid Damage to Crops
- Australia
- Cyprus
- Israel
- Japan
- Malaysia
- Mauritius and Madagascar
- South Asia
- Thailand
Therefore, the total estimate of flying foxes that died due to shooting in the orchard during the two-week period was 205. In Sarawak, research by Gumal et al. 1998) successfully resulted in all bat species in the state being listed as 'protected' in May 1998 under Part II of the Sarawak Wildlife Ordinance 1998 (with the exception of Cheiromeles torquatus which is listed in Part I as 'Totally Protected').
Non-lethal Methods of Mitigation
- Netting and Associated Tree Management
- Decoy Crops
- Deterrents/Aversion Agents
- Combined Methods of Mitigation
- Biological Control Agent—Weaver Ants Oecophylla longinoda
This involves the use of bamboo skirts that cover the top of the collection pot and the shaved part of the palm (Nahar et al. 2010) and has been enthusiastically adopted by palm sap collectors (gachhis) (Fig. 13.5). Each channel had one speaker in the center of the cutout and another in one corner.
Recommendations and Issues for Future Consideration
- Better Knowledge of Pteropodid Diet and Foraging Preferences
- Funding Interventions and Research to Mitigate the Pteropodid–Grower Conflict
- Education of Growers and the Public
The arborist claimed to have seen no evidence that flying foxes are essential to forests (Bicknell 2002). No consultative committees now exist in New South Wales or Queensland, and the government of the latter state actively supports the destruction of flying foxes in orchards.
Conclusions
Amman BR, Jones MEB, Sealy TK et al (2014a) Oral shedding of Marburg virus in experimentally infected Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus). Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, Mosman, NSW, p. 84–90 Lee Y-F, Takaso T, Chiang T-Y et al (2009) Variation in nocturnal foraging distribution and.
Bats and Buildings: The Conservation of Synanthropic Bats
Introduction
- What Is the Purpose of This Review?
- Relevant Natural History Features of Synanthropic Bats
- Which Bat Species Use Buildings?
- Human–Bat Conflict in Buildings and the Legal Protection of Synanthropic Bats
Yet this close association has disadvantages when synanthropic bats are faced with threats from humans. As a result, synanthropic bats are persecuted almost worldwide, even if the legal framework may define this conduct as criminal.
How Do Bats Find and Use Buildings?
- Buildings as Foraging Sites
- Buildings as Shelters During Foraging Bouts
- Buildings as Maternity Roosts
- Buildings as Swarming Sites
- Buildings as Hibernacula
Šuba et al. 2010), so it has been argued that spawning is associated with refuge exploration (Smit-Viergutz and Simon 2000). Nevertheless, a social function of spawning behavior has also been suggested, for example for Vespertio murinus (Kanuch et al. 2010;.
Benefits of a Synanthropic Lifestyle in Bats .1 Increased Fitness of Bats Using Buildings
- Enhanced Access to Habitats by Using Buildings as Ecological Stepping Stones
- Expansion of Geographic Ranges
Their use of warm habitats may even be associated with increased reproductive rates (Bronner et al. 1999). The hook-eared bat, Myotis emarginatus, also uses buildings as roosts in the northernmost part of its range in Europe (Dekker et al. 2013).
Negative Consequences of a Synanthropic Lifestyle in Bats
- Decreased Fitness Owing to Direct Threats
- Decreased Fitness Owing to Indirect Threats
Pipistrellus pipistrellus is most commonly caught in Europe during the autumn spawning season (Pfalzer and Weber 2007; Kanuch et al. 2010). Chemical pollutants are likely an indirect threat to bats roosting in buildings (Mitchell-Jones et al. 1989; Bayat et al. 2014).
Consequences for Humans Sharing Buildings with Bats
- Benefits of Sharing a Building with Bats
- Pathogen and Parasite Exposure
- Noise, Odor, Dust, and Activity
- Harmful Bats
- Destruction of Buildings Caused by Bat Excreta
For example, bats can act as a reservoir for Bartonella/Burkholderia bacteria, which can be transmitted to humans via bed bugs (Saenz et al. 2013). Apparently, salts in excreta of bats erode the sandstone of some ancient buildings (Hosono et al. 2006).
Conservation of Bats in Buildings: Avoidance, Mitigation, and Compensation
- General Considerations for the Conservation of Bats in Buildings
- Avoiding or Mitigating Roost Losses in Buildings
- Compensating for Lost Roosts
- Loss of Roosts Due to Demographic Changes in the Human Population
In the worst case, sleeping places are abandoned after direct illumination of the buildings in which the sleeping place is located (Boldogh et al. 2007). Directing artificial light at the entrances of roosts can have a negative effect on the roost of bats in buildings (Boldogh et al. 2007).
Examples of Good Practice
- Example 1: The Outreach Program for the “Bat-Friendly House”
- Example 2: Renovated Buildings Designated for Bat Conservation Purposes
The details of the vast majority of these cases have not been documented or published. Project staff explain the goals of the project and show visitors the appearance of colony members at dusk.
Synthesis and Outlook
In: Voigt CC, Kingston T (eds) Bats in the Anthropocene: bat conservation in a changing world. Madagascar Conserv Dev 5:85–88 Reichel-Jung K, Threlfall CG (2016) Urbanization and its effects on bats—a global meta-analysis-.
Conservation Ecology of Cave Bats
Introduction
The most widely used daily cultivations occur in caves and, due to the global abundance of surface carbonate rocks (Fig. 15.1), in karst caves. However, our main aim is to highlight the threats to bats in caves and ways they can be mitigated.
Why Do Cave Bats Matter?
Of the 40 European bat species for which information is available, 28 are found in caves during hibernation and some throughout the year (Dietz et al. 2009). This has resulted in overcrowding and disturbance of bats in the cave (Bumrungsri et al. 2013), exacerbated by cave modifications made to aid guano mining (Elliot 1994).
Life in Caves
- Cave Selection
- Influence of Cave Microclimate
- Importance of Bats for Cave Ecosytems
This cave was difficult to access and, unlike some of the others in the national park, was rarely visited by tourists. These two factors allowed this northernmost representative of the Phyllostomidae to enter the temperate zone (Bell et al. 1986).
Conservation Threats
- Seasonality and Climate Change
- Incidental Disturbance
- Extractive Industries
- Cave Tourism
- Insights from Long Term Studies
- Declines in Cave Bats
Altered distribution patterns are also expected for hibernating species due to changes in energy requirements (Humphries et al. 2002). A regular winter census has taken place in one of the tourist caves, Sloupsko, in the Moravian karst (Zukal et al. 2003).
Conservation Responses
- National and International Initiatives for the Protection of Cave Bats
- Development of Gating
- Artificial Hibernacula and Maternity Roosts
- Recent Initiatives
The large number of abandoned mines in the USA, the need to maintain public safety and conserve bats has led to widespread opening of both mines and caves (Dalton and Dalton 1995; Vories et al. 2004). The Combe Down quarry complex in the UK is one of the twenty most important hibernacula in Europe.
Future Directions
Kitaen ti Artikulo PubMed PubMed Sentral nga Google Scholar Bumrungsri S, Sripaoraya E, Chongsiri T ken dagiti kakaduana (2009). Crimmins S. M., McKann P. C., Szymanski J. A. ken dagiti kakaduana. (2014) Dagiti epekto ti ruangan ti kueba kadagiti uso ti populasion kadagiti indibidual a hibernacula ti Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis).
