•<!&. KINH NGHliM QUdCTi
Tir CHU CUA CfflNH QUYEN CAP XA d AN DO VA BAI HOC KINH NGHIEM DOI VOl VIET NAM
Pham Duy Canh *
Tdm tat: Vdi han 65% ngudi ddn An Dp sdng d ndng thdn, viec thuc hien tic chu cua chinh quyin cdp xd la rdt quan trpng de thuc hien hiiu qud xda ddi, gidm ngheo, tdng cudng sinh ki vdphdt huy sire sdng tgo cua ngudi ddn. Bdi viet Idm ro vdn de tu chu dia phuang cua chinh quyin cdp xd d An Dp vd di xudt nhimg bdi hpc kinh nghiem ddi vdi Vi$t Nam.
Tir khda: An Dp, chinh quyen cdp xd, tu chu dia phuang. kinh nghiem cho Viet Nam Abstract: With more than 65% of Indians living in rural areas, it is very important for commune authorities to be self-reliant to effectively reduce poverty, enhance livelihoods and promote people's creativity. The paper clarifies the issue of local autonomy of communal authorities in India and proposes lessons for Vietnam.
Keywords: India, commune government, local autonomy, experience for Vietnam Ngdynhdnbdi: 22/10/2018 Ngdysuabdi:08/ll/2018 Ngdy duyet ddng:03/l 2/2018
1. Khai quat ve chinh quyen dia phuong d A n Dp
An Dp gdm 28 bang va 7 lanh thd hpp nhat. Ve cac cap chinh quyen, cd chinh quyen trung uong, chinh quyen bang va chinh quyen dja phuong. Cdp chinh quyen trung uang va chinh quyen bang dupe td chde tuang ty nhau ve ca quan Idp phap vd hdnh phdp.
Chmh quyln dja phuong d An Dp dupe chia Idm hai logi do Id chinh quyen ndng thdn vd chinh quyen dd thj. Chinh quyen ndng thdn
dupe gpi Id "the Panchayats". Chinh quyen do thj dupe gpi Id "the Municipalities". Hien cd 6,45,000 thyc thi chinh quyln dia phuang cua An Dp. Chinh quyln ndng thdn dupe phdn thanh 3 cap do la: cdp xa (panchayats), cap tinng gian - huy$n (panchayat Samiti) vd cip cao nhat la hat (zilla panchayat). Dilu 73 va Dilu 74 Dao ludt tu chinh dn 1992 lan dau tien ghi nhdn dia vj phdp ly cua chinh quyln dja phuong cd dd thi va ndng thdn. Lanh dao chinh quyen dja phuang dupe ngudi dan bdu
* ThS, Trucmg Dgi hoc Npi vu Hd Npi
93 I Tap chi Khoa hpc Ndi vu
KINH NGHliM QU6c Ti Mf
cu tryc tiep theo nhiem ky nam nam.
Chinh quyen ndng thdn c6 ten Panchayat, nghTa gde la hdi nghi 5 ngudi. Theo truyen thdng tii lau ddi, 5 ngudi cao tudi dupe cdng ddng ldng xa de cu, cd uy tin rat cao, cd quyen xet xd vd hdnh phdp. Tu khi ngudi Anh cai tri An Dp, hau nhu mpi sy chu y chuyen sang cdc thiet che chinh quyen dd thi. Sau khi gianh dupe ddc Igp td Anh, chinh quyln dja phuang ndng thdn duac dua ve vj tti vdn cd cua nd. Tuy nhien, phdi den nam 1993, Hiln phdp An Dp mdi chinh thdc thua nhgn thiet che chinh quyen ndng thdn (PRI).
Hien phap nam 1993 quy djnh cac tilu bang ban hdnh cdc quy dinh thdnh lap PRI vdi cac dgi bieu ddn cd d 3 cip (xa, cip trung gian, cdp hgt). Ddi vdi nhirng bang cd sd ddn dudi 2 trieu ngudi thi khdng can cd cip trung gian. Tdt cd cdc ghe ttong PRI d tit cd cdc cip phdi dupe ddn bdu true tilp 5 nam mdt lan. Mdt phdn ba sd ghi phdi danh cho phu nu vd cac cdng ddng yeu thi. Neu vi tri edc dai bilu bj ttdng hogc chinh quyln bi gidi thi trudc thdi hgn thi phdi biu Iai ttong vdng 6 thang. Hdi ddng dia phuang dupe biu tryc tiep bdi cdng dan dia phucmg tren 18 tudi vd sdng ttong dja phuang dd, cd ten dupe niem yit trong danh sach tyi tri .
De xay dyng bp may chinh quyln, moi dja phuang phdi thanh lap uy ban biu cu d moi tieu bang de td chde cdc cudc biu cd ty do;
thdnh lap uy ban tai chinh tilu bang vdi nhiem ky 5 nam d l theo ddi tinh hinh tai chinh cua
cdc PRI; thdnh lap uy ban ke hogch cdp hat;
thanh lap Gram Sabha (hdi ddng xa) tgi timg xa vdi cac thara quydn do luat cua tieu bang quy dinh. Theo cac nha nghien cdu, chinh PRI bien An Dp thanh mdt nude cd nen dan chd dai dien nhat tten the gidi, vdi 2,2 trieu dan bieu dja phuong 3 cap, ttong dd han 40%
Id phu nu, khoang 27% thuOc edc bd tdc, bd lac yeu the. Theo sd li^u ndm 2006, d cap xd, trung binh mdi dan bieu dgi dien cho khodng 340 cd tri, hay la 70 gia dinh .
Trong 3 cdp chinh quyen dja phuong ndng thdn An Dp, xa Id cdp chinh quyen thdp nhit nhung lai quan ttpng nhdt. Thyc te cho thiy, cap xa vdn ddng vai ttd tich eye nhdt ttong 3 cap chinh quyen ndng thdn, thyc hien hdu het cdc nhiem vy do tieu bang uy quyen xudng. Tuy nhien, phgm vi thdm quyln ciia chinh quyen dja phuang ndng thdn An Dp phu thude nhieu vao quy djnh cua timg tilu bang. Han nua, van cdn sy chdng chdo, tiiilu rd rdng ttong viec uy quyln. Dac biet, ttong nhieu trudng hop van tdn tai khodng each giua yeu cdu, ddi hdi vd nguon lyc thyc hien.
Chinh quyen ndng thdn d An Dp cdn phu thudc nhieu vdo cdc ngudn tai chinh hd ttp cua chinh quyen tieu bang.
2. Ngi dung tu cbu cua chinh quyen cip xa d An Do
Cdc nhd nghien cuu ve ty chu dia phucmg d An Dp cho rang, "ca thi ty chii" bilu tin mdt bd rady ty chu, ddc lap hogc tuan theo ludt rieng cua nd. Co quan tu chu cd quyen
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va quyen lyc duy nhdt de thiet lap ludt vd quy tac img xd cua rieng hp. Ca quan nay khdng chju ap lyc ben ngodi, do dd cd the hogt ddng ddc lap. Ci An Dp, PRI dupe ty do thiet lap luat le ciia rieng minh nhung lugt dd phai phu hpp vdi Hien phap va cdc ludt hien hanh cua qudc gia.
Didu 243 (b) Hien phdp nam 2013 cua An Dp quy djnh ro nhiing ndi dung md chinh quyen cdp xa d An Dp dupe ty chu. Hien phap ciing quy djnh ttdch nhiem cua Hdi ddng xa ttong van de ty chu. Hpi ddng xa cd chde nang thao luan ve qudn tri vd phat trien dia phuang va lap ke hogch dya tten nhu cdu cua xa. Hdi ddng quyet djnh viec thyc hien cdc chuang ttinh phat trien dudi su uy thdc, giam sdt vd chiu su gidm sat. Mpi van de tu chu cua chinh quyen cdp xa phdi dupe hpi ddng xa quyet dinh. Cdc quyet djnh cua hpi ddng xa khdng the bi huy bd bdi bat ky co quan nao khac. Chi cd hdi ddng xa radi cd thara quyen huy bd quyet djnh cua chinh minh.
De dieu hanh cdng viec cua xa, hdi ddng xa tien hanh bau chu tjch (Sarpanch) va phd chu tich xa (Upsarpanch) la thanh vien hpi ddng xa. Nhung ngudi nay chiu ttdch nhiem trudc hdi ddng ve dieu hdnh mpi hogt dpng cua xa de thyc hien nhiing npi dung til chu dupe Hien djnh. Chu tjch xa la ngudi diing dau CO quan hanh phdp cila xa, ngudi phat ngdn chinh thdc ciia xa. Chu tjch xa cdn la ngudi chiu trdeh nhiem ve viec phdi hpp hogt ddng cua minh va nhimg ngudi khac trong
cdc td chuc dja phuang nhu hpp tdc xa, doanh nghiep ttong xa... Giup viec cho chu tjch xa thudng cd hai cdng chuc cap xa.
Luat phap An Dp quy djnh nhung ngay cu the md Hdi ddng xa phdi hpp. Dd la: ngay Cpng hda (ngay 26 thdng 01), Ngdy Qudc te lao ddng (ngdy 01 thdng 5), Ngay qudc khdnh An Dp (ngdy 15 thdng 8) va Ngdy Gandhi Jayanti (ngay 02 thdng 10). Tuy nhien hpi ddng dupe tu do trieu tap hpp vao nhiing ngdy khdc theo tinh hinh thyc te dja phuang.
Ndi dung cudc hpp hdi ddng xa bdn ve nhiing van de ndi dung ty chu bit budc gdm:
(1). Ndng nghi?p, khuyen ndng, (2). Cung cap nude sgch, (3). Phy nu vd tre em, (4). Gido dye ddnh cho ngudi ldn va gido due khdng chinh thuc, (5). Cdc chuang trinh xoa ddi gidm ngheo, (6). Dien ndng thdn, phan phdi dien, (7). Chdn nudi bd siia, chdn nudi gia cam, (8).
Ndng ttai vd Idng nghi cdng nghiep, (9). Sdc khde va ve sinh mdi trudng, bao gdm trung tam chara sdc sdc khde ban dau, benh vien co sd, (10). Xahdivdndng 1dm nghiep, (11). Dat dai, (12). Quan ly nude vd thuy lpi nhd, (13).
He thing phdn phoi cdng cdng, (14). Nhd d ndng thdn, (15). Dudng giao thdng ndng thdn va cdc phuang tien truyen thdng ndng thdn, (16). Cdp gidy khai smh, gidy chung tii.
De thyc hien chde nang ty chu, chinh quyen xa (hdi ddng xa) dupe nhan tien tii 3 ngudn chinh; tien tii chinh quyen bang theo de nghi cua Uy ban tai chinh bang; tien tu cac quy cua xa; tien tdi ttd td chinh quyen
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tnmg ucmg. Chinh quyen xa cung phai cd nghia vy nop ngan sach cho chinh quySn cap tten. Theo quy djnh, chinh quyen cap xa phdi nop ngan sdch, tdi khodn cua cac nam trudc do vd bdn bdo cdo qudn trj thudng nien trudc chinh quyen cap tten. Chinh quyen cdp xd cd quyen de bdo ddm duy tri nhiem vu va irng cdc ehi phi cua hp ttong cdng vu. Hdi ddng xa cd quyen quyet dinh thu thue tten ddng vat, xe cp, nhd, dit ttdng vd cac ngdnh nghe. Hp cung cd the cho thue bat dpng san, tai sdn cua xa de cd ngudn thu. Quy djnh ndy hien dang rdt khdng hpp ly, ddn din chinh quyen cdp xa thu thue bua bai, gay ra bat dn ddi vdi nhiing ngudi phdi chju thue.
Co che ty chu cua chinh quyen cap xd d An Dp da thyc sy phdt huy quyen ban cua chinh quyen va thuc day doanh nghiep dja phuang phdt triSn. Chinh quyen cap xa cd toan quyen tu chu ttong viec thyc hien quyen sd hiru vd qudn ly kinh te xa hdi, toan quyen bdo dam cac khoan tdi ttp kinh t l xa hpi ma khdng cd sy tilp can can thiep cua chinh quyln cip tten theo quy djnh cua Hiln phap. Khdng nhung the, CO che ty chu bao ddm tinh minh bgch vd tdng cudng ttdch nhiem gidi tiinh ddi vdi ngudi dan.
Ty chu cua chinh quyln cap xa da cdi thien sy phdi hpp tiiuc hi?n cdc chinh sdch va chuang tiinh cua tilu bang vd qudc gia, rad rpng hd ttp cdc dja phuang kem phat trien nhd su thuc ddy tham gia cua khu vyc tu nhan ttong quan tii dia phuong. Theo cdc nhd
nghien cdu, co che ty chu cua chinh quyen cap xa d An Dp budc chinh quyen cap ttdn chuyen giao cdc dich vu cdng ca ban cho ehinh quyen cap xa nhara thyc hi^n hieu qud ban. Co che ty chu da tang cudng sy tham gia cda ngudi dan thdng qua cdc ca che ngudi dan tham dy, tang doanh thu cho chinh quyen dja phuang qua cdc logi tiiul dac thu timg dja phuong, tang quyen ban cua ca quan lap phap va hanh phdp dja phuong.
Thanh cdng ldn nhat ttong tu chu dja phuang cua chinh quyen cap xa d An Dp bdo dam dupe tinh da dgng ve dan tpc, ngdn ngu va cung vdi dd la nit ngdn khoang each giau ngheo, chenh lech phdt trien giua cac vung.
An Dp CO 32 dan tdc vdi 330 phuang ngii khdc nhau. Ty chu cua chinh quyen cip xa gdp phan duy tri tinh da dgng, phong phu cua mdt qudc gia da ddn t0c, bao dam sy hai hda, ddng thuan ttong qua ttinh phdt triln.
Co che ty chu cua chinh quyln cip xa d An Dp thuc day sy tham gia tich eye cua ngucri dan dia phuong vao qud trinh ra quyet djnh.
Lanh dgo chinh quyen xd Id nhiing ngudi tryc tiep dupe ngudi dan dja phuong biu dya tten nang luc chuyen mon vd kinh nghiep qudn ly dd dap ling myc tidu cudi cimg la cung cap djch vu cdng d cap xa hieu qua nhdt cd the.
Neu lanh dao chinh quyen cap xa khdng dat dupe ky vpng cua ngudi dan, hp se khdng duoc tdi dac cd ttong cudc bdu cu tiep theo.
Theo cac nha nghien cdu, tu chu cua chinh quyen cdp xa d An Dp cdn tao ra cdc nhd lanh
96 I Tap chi Khoa hoc Not vu
ve». KINH NGHliM QU6C Ti
dgo tuong Iai d cip cao hon. Nhiing ngudi la lanh dgo, cdng chde 1dm vi$c ttong chinh quyen cap xa cd thdi gian tu ddo tao de cd dupe kinh nghiem va kien thdc ve hoach dinh, thyc thi vd ddnh gia chinh sdch, qudn tri chinh sdch. Ty chu cua chinh quyen cap xa d An Dp duoc ddnh gid Id trudng hpc tdt nhit ciia nen dan chu va bdo ddm tdt nhit cho sy thdnh cdng cua quan trj chinh quyen cac cap.
Mac du dat dupe nhung thdnh cdng nhu vgy, nhung hien nay, chinh quyen cap xa d An Dd dang gap phdi thdch thdc Idn nhat ve vdn de an sinh xa hdi. Sy chenh lech phat trien giua khu vyc thanh thi va ndng thdn ngay cdng rd ret. Hien nay An Dp cd nin kinh t l Idn thu bay tten the gidi, sau Phap vd diing trudc Italia. Dy kien den nam 2024, An Dp se vupt Tnmg Qudc ttd thdnh qudc gia ddng ddn nhdt the gidi. Tuy nhien, theo bdo cdo cua Td chuc Hpp tdc vd Phat ttien Kinh te (OECD), ban 30% ddn sd tte d qudc gia Nam A ndy thudc nhdm ddi tuong "ba khdng": khdng viec lara, khdng gido dye va khdng dupe dao tgo. Trong Bao cdo An ninh luang thyc tiie gidi nam 2017 cua To chuc Ndng nghiep va Luong thyc cua LHQ (FAO), An Dp cd 190,7 tiieu ngudi suy dinh duang, tuang duang 14,5% dan sd. Khoang 51,4% sd phu nu ttong dp tudi sinh de (td 15 den 49 tudi) bi thilu mau, 38,4% sd tre em dudi nam tiidi gdy y l u hoac thdp cdi. Hau nhu nhung trudng hpp ndy deu sdng d vung ndng thdn. Day Id ganh ngng cho chinh quyen dja phucmg An
Dp, ttong do trdeh nhiem ngng n l nhit thudc ve chinh quyen cip xa.
Che dp tu chu dja phuong d An Dp dang Id vdn de gdy mdu thudn giiia cdc ddng chinh tn hien nay. Nhirng van de an sinh xa hpi d ndng thdn An Dp hien nay Id de tai de cdc chinh ddng ttanh gianh cu tri. Vi dy nhu trudng hpp Ddng Nhdn dan An Dp gianh dupe su iing hd cao cua ed tri vung ndng thdn ttong thdi gian gdn day khi Ddng ndy ddn dau phong ttdo xudng dudng chdng tham nhiing cdch ddy hai nam. Nam 2015, Dang nay hien da danh bai cd hai Ddng Bharatiya Janata vd Dang Qudc Dai, chiem 67 ttong 70 ghi tgi Hpi ddng thdnh phd Dehli. Dang Dan Thudng bao gdm cdc nhdm da dang nhu nhung ngudi tte tudi, nhung ngudi cd nghe chuyen mdn, tri thdc, cde nhd hogt dpng vd sinh vien .
3. Bai bpc kinh nghiem doi vdi Vi^t Nam Ciing nhu An Dp, ndng thdn Viet Nam rat da dgng ve dja hinh, da ddn tpc, da tdn gido.
Viet Nam cd 54 ddn tpc anh em sinh sdng tten mdt dai lanh thd dai hang ngan km. Cung nhu An Dp, ndng thdn Viet Nam cd dja hinh ddng bang, mien nui, vimg ven bien va hai ddo. Ndng thdn Viet Nam ciing dang ttong qud trinh cdng nghiep hda, hien dgi hoa nhu An Dp. Xudt phdt td thyc te ndy, Viet Nam nen hpc hdi nhung kinh nghiem ve ty chii dia phuang d AnDn.
Trudc hit, viec phdn quyen cho chinh quyen xa. Chinh phu Viet Nam nen tang cudng phdn quyen cho chinh quyen cap xa
97 i Tap chi Khoa hpc Npi vij
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theo nguyen tie phu hpp vdi dac didm chde nang, nhiem vy de phdt huy tdi da sue manh cua chmh quyln xa. Tuy nhien, vi?c phdn quyln cho chinh quyln cap xa nen chu y^ din yeu td cdng ddng (ddn tdc, tdn gido va vdn hda cua cdng ddng) va khdng nen phdn quyen theo kieu ddng nhat tten todn qudc.
Thu hai. khdng nen dp dyng mdt md hinh quan tri, mdt cdch thdc quan tri cua chinh quyln cip xa cho rapi vung, mien. Can phai dua tten ylu td dgc thu, mdi xa cd nhirng dgc diem vd vin de rieng. Day la vdn de tdn tai cdn phdi tinh tdi ttong thidt ke co che quan tri dja phuong. Ca che ty chu dja phuong d An Dp dya tten co sd phap Iy duy nhdt Id nhiing quy djnh ttong Hidn phdp. Hien phdp An Dp quy dinh nhung nhiem vy tu chu bit budc cda chinh quyen cap xa ciing nhu nhiing nhipm vy ty chu md chinh quyen cip tten uy thac cho chinh quyen cap xa. CJ nude ta, Hien phdp nam 2013 quy djnh chinh quyen dja phuong "quylt djnh cdc van de cua dia phuang do ludt dinh; chju sy kiem tta, giam sat cua CO quan nha nude cdp tten" va "thuc hipn mdt sd nhi^m vy ciia co quan nha nude cip tten vdi cdc dieu kipn dam bdo thyc hien"
(Dieu 112). Nhu vdy, mae du Hiln phdp chua quy djnh cy the nhiing ndi dung chinh quyln dja phuang ndi ehung va chinh quyen xa ndi rieng cd nghia vy tu chu, nhung Hien phap da tao ca sd phdp ly ve van d l chinh quyln cip tten iiy thdc cho chmh quyln dja phuang cip dudi ve tu chu. Thilt nghT phap ludt cin quy
djnh rd nhung ndi dung md chinh quySn cdp xa cd nghia vu ty ehu, nhiing ndi dung ma chinh quyen cip tren cd the uy thdc dupe cho chinh quyln cap xa. Neu co nhiing quy dinh ndy, se Id ca sd phap ly ve quyen tu quyet cdc vdn de ttong khudn khd tham quyen dupe phdn djnh, tii do tgo dilu ki?n thuan lpi cho quyen cap xa cd ca hpi phdt huy tinh tich eye, hieu qud ttong vipc mang lai cdc gia trj, lpi ich true tilp ve tinh than, vdt chat cho ngudi ddn d dja phuong.
Hoat ddng cua chinh quyen cap xa d An Dp phai chju sy giam sdt cua ngudi dan qua che dp thuc hidn ttdch nhiem gidi trinh. Ve mgt tdi chinh, chinh quyen cdp xa phdi cd ttdch nhiem bdo cao tdi chinh vdi uy ban tai chinh tieu bang vd chiu sy kiem todn ciia nhd nude. Viec quy djnh cy the nhu vdy nhdm ttanh hien tupng thara nhiing ciing nhu tao dieu kien de ngudi dan giara sat va tham gia hogch dinh chinh sach cua chinh quyen cdp xa. Thiet nghT Lugt Td chde chinh quyen dja phuang cua nude ta nen cd them nhung quy ve CO che gidm sat cua ngudi dan ddi vdi hoat ddng cua chinh quyen cap xa, co che vd hinh thue edng khai thdng tin cua chinh quy6n cap xd de ngudi dan giam sat. Luat ciing nen cd quy djnh cy the ve co che boat ddng ddc lap cua chinh quyen xa de phdt huy kha ndng sdng tgo cua can bp, cdng chde xa ciing nhu viec ty chju ttdch nhiem trudc ngudi dan vd chinh quyen cdp.
Viec chu ttpng vin de tii chu cua chinh
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quyen cdp xa d nude ta hon bao gid het can dupe chii ttpng, Thyc te cho thay, ttong xu the cdi cdch nen hdnh chinh nhd nude hien nay, chinh quyln cip tt6n khdng Idm thay ttong nhimg van de md dja phucmg cd the ty quyet nhu: tdi chmh, nhan su vd cdc vdn de xa hpi. Tu thuc tien An Dp cho thdy, viec chinh quyln cap xa ty quyet dinh nhiing vdn dl ndy sinh ttong thyc hien tham quyen cua minh la dieu kien de thyc hien tdt hon nhiem vy phat trien kinh te, van hda - xa hpi cua xa.
Co sd cdng ddng dan cu Id nen tang viing chac de chinh quyen cdp xa thyc hien tdt chde ndng, nhiem vy cua minh. Ci nude ta hien nay can phat huy quyen giam sat cua cdng ddng dan cu ddi vdi boat dpng cua chinh quyen xa vi day la hinh thdc thuc hien ddn chu tryc tiep, giup chinh quyen xa huy dpng sue dan tham gia vdo cdc hogt ddng kinh te - xa hpi dia phuong, phat huy the mgnh, tiem ndng cda dja phuong va giam ganh nang tdi chinh cua chinh quyen xa vd chinh quyen cdp tten.
Dilu nay da dupe khang djnh ttong Van kien Dai hdi Dang toan qudc ldn thu VI: "Ddi vdi nhung chu tin:ang cd quan he tryc tiep den ddi sdng nhan dan tten pham vi cd nude cung nhu d cac dja phuang vd don vi co sd, cap uy dang hoac co quan chinh quyen phai trung cdu y kiln nhdn ddn trudc khi quyet djnh.
Dan bilt, ddn ban, dan Idm, ddn kiem tta do Id nin nep hang ngay cua xa hdi mdi, the hien ehl dp nhdn ddn lao ddng ty qudn Iy nha nude cua minh". Thuc tl cho thiy, viec thyc hien
quy che ddn chu d co sd da phat huy quyln lam chil, sue sdng tgo ciia ngudi dan, cai thien dan sinh, ndng cao dan tri, dn dinh chinh trj, tang cudng doan ket toan dan va cd tdc ddng tryc tiep den chat lupng hoat ddng ciia chinh quyen cap xa d nude ta.
TAI LIEU THAM KHAO 1. Government of India, Report ofthe Team for the Study of Community Projects and National Extension Service, (Chairperson: Balvanttay Mehta), Committee on Plan Projects, National Development Council, (New Delhi, November 1957), Vol. I,
2. The Constitution (Seventy Third Amendment) Act, (1992), The Gazette of India, Ministry of Law, Justice and Company Affairs, New Delhi.
3. Puja Mondai, The Three-Tier System of Panchayati Raj in India, www.yourarticlelibrary.
com/politics/the-three-tier-system-of-panchayati- raj-in-india/4827
4. Shourie, Arun (1990), Individuals, institutions, processes: How one may strengthen the other in India today. New Delhi, India: Viking.
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