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A. Paracelsus (1493–1541) It has already become a truism to say that the quality of human life depends on the
INTRODUCTION
Due to its low content, but important functions in plants and humans, it is included in the trace element group. Due to Al's versatile properties, it is used in various industrial sectors such as metallurgy, construction, electricity, chemistry, and transport and packaging (especially food).
SOILS
It is the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust, with about 8% and up to 5% in soil. 2 Trace elements in abiotic and biotic environments The behavior of Al in soil is greatly modified by SOM, due to the forms of organically bound Al in both solid and liquid phases.
WATERS
The contribution of Al in drinking water to the total oral exposure is calculated to be about 4%. The Al industry is estimated to release about 0.2 kg of Al per 1 t of Al mined (Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee 2007).
PLANTS
HUMANS
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
The most soluble Sb in contaminated soil is during citric acid solution treatment (Telford et al. 2008). Topsoil around various industries also contains elevated Sb levels (in mg/kg): Cu smelter, USA; Maury Island, Washington, 49–204; Au refining, USA, 280 (Flynn et al. 2003).
WATERS
PLANTS
HUMANS
The primary source of exposure to Sb2O3 for the general population in Canada is flame retardants used in furniture upholstery and mattress covers. Flame retardant polyester fabrics used in children's stuffed toys may be another source of exposure (Health Canada 2010a).
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
The release of ash from various industrial sources, particularly coal combustion, has increased levels in many soils, sometimes as high as 20,000 mg/kg (Smith et al. 1998). Other sources of As are (1) landfills and other waste, especially sludge; (2) chemical and related products; and (3) wood and various wood products.
WATERS
In Serbia, drinking water contains up to about 6.5 µg/L, in both bottled and tap water (Ristić et al. 2011). The provisional guideline value for Ash in drinking water is 10 µg/L (WHO 2011a). The guideline value is designated as provisional based on treatment performance and analytical feasibility.).
PLANTS
16 Trace elements in abiotic and biotic environments from water is a major concern, and several methods are proposed and used based on mechanisms such as precipitation, adsorption, coagulation, and so on (Bang et al. 2011; Höll 2011). Fe-Mn oxide nanoparticles are used for As stabilization in groundwater (An and Zhao 2012).
HUMANS
For example, a study in the Netherlands reported that inorganic As comprised 0.1%–41% of total As in seafood (Vaessen and van Ooik 1989). Most of the data reported are for total As intake and do not reflect the potential variation in intake of the more toxic inorganic As species.
ANIMALS
The estimated total daily dietary intake of As can vary greatly, mainly due to large variations in fish and shellfish consumption.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
Barium source may come from some aerial deposition, especially from the environment of P fertilizer plants. Barium is found in most country soils at low levels; however, it may be at higher levels at hazardous waste sites.
WATERS
In most cases, Ba input from air sources and with P fertilizers increases output (leaching and uptake by plants), and the Ba budget in rural soils slowly increases. Ba levels in the air of rural and urban areas are rising to 90 ng/m3 and above 100 ng/m3, respectively.
PLANTS
HUMANS
This ion and soluble compounds of Ba (especially chloride, nitrate and hydroxide) are toxic to humans. The most important route of exposure to Ba appears to be ingestion of Ba through drinking water and food.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
WATERS
At the same time, 450 t of Be compounds were released in the USA (Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee 2007). Elevated levels of Be and its compounds in air are a major concern because their inhalation is highly toxic to humans and animals (Rossmann 2004).
PLANTS
Its content in the air in rural and urban areas rises to 90 and over 100 ng/m3, respectively.
HUMANS
The respiratory tract in humans and animals is the primary target of Be toxicity following inhalation exposure. Dermal exposure to Be and its components in humans may result in a delayed-type (cell-mediated) cutaneous hypersensitivity response.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
WATERS
PLANTS
HUMANS
Grass (Agrostis scabra), plots where Bi granules were used, contain increased Bi amounts, up to 95 µg/kg (Fahey et al. 2008). The dietary exposure of the UK population was 2 µg Bi/day (Rose et al. 2010).
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
It is absorbed into the soil more strongly than other anions by both organic and inorganic soil components. In these soils, an excess of B can cause agricultural problems, while in other soils it is more likely a micronutrient deficiency.
WATERS
Boron concentration in surface water of the United States ranges from 1 to 5000 µg/L (Butterwick et al. 1989). Anthropogenic sources of B in water are mainly sewage sludge, in which its maximum concentration in the United States is 4000 µg/L, and in Europe, 5000 µg/L (Butterwick et al. 1989).
PLANTS
Soluble Al compounds react with B in water, resulting in the formation of Al-B insoluble complex. Median B concentration in bottled water in EU countries is 48 µg/L and is higher than in tap water, 16 µg/L (Birke et al. 2010).
HUMANS
Boron interacts in the absorption of other nutrients by plants because it has an influence on the membrane permeability and cell colloids (Goldbach et al. 2007). Boron is a significant contaminant or major ingredient of many non-food personal care products (Hunt et al. 1991).
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
The reference Br range in US soil is between 1.4 and 7.8 mg/kg (Govindaraju 1994). Currently, the anthropogenic sources of Br in soil are mainly associated with the use of bromomethane (CH3Br) for fumigation of soil with crop plants.
WATERS
PLANTS
Citrus seedlings are most sensitive to soil Br excess and can be used as an indicator of soil Br excess.
HUMANS
One type of Br compound, diphenyl ether (PBDE), appears to accumulate in people living in the United States. Bromine is used as an additive in the form of K bromate and brominated vegetable oil.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
In particular, interactions with dissolved organic carbon influence Cd speciation in soil solution (Ge et al. 2005). Acceptable Cd levels in soils are estimated based on various criteria within the range of 3–3.7 mg/kg (Siebielec et al. 2012).
WATERS
According to EU regulations, the use of compost materials in agricultural soils is advisable when their Cd content varies between 0.2 and 1.3 mg/kg (Eckel et al. 2005). Liming is an old practice to reduce the phytoavailability of Cd, and it is still effective (Adriano et al. 2004).
PLANTS
The highest concentration of Cd (560 mg/kg) is reported for Thlaspi caerulescens, which is suggested for phytoremediation (Felix et al. 1999). Of the various endemic plants grown in the polluted areas of Northern Europe (Kola Peninsula), the crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) has the highest capacity to accumulate Cd (0.058 mg/kg) (Reimann et al. 2001).
HUMANS
To protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practice in the food trade. Maximum permissible levels (MLs) for Cd (and other contaminants) in some foods have been set by JECFA and the EU (EC 2006; EU 2014) to protect consumer health and ensure fair practices in the food trade.
ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
WATERS
Cesium in water forms CsOH and is adsorbed by suspended solid particles, and is finely present in bottom sediments, which can contain up to >50 mg Cs/kg. Cesium concentrations in air from remote regions do not exceed 0.4 ng/m3, while in industrial areas they are up to 18 ng/m3 (Table 10.1).
PLANTS
Cesium distribution in plants is similar to K, suggesting that it may compete with K in uptake processes and binding sites in cells (Isaure et al. 2005). Cesium is easily absorbed from the atmosphere by mosses; mosses collected in Norway between 1990 and 1995 contain cesium between 0.02 and 3.1 mg/kg (Berg and Steinnes 1997).
CESIUM ISOTOPES .1 I ntroductIon.1 IntroductIon
- S oIlS
- W aterS
- P lantS
The highest concentration, up to 8 Bq/kg, has been reported for fish from ponds in Chernobyl (Jagoe et al. 1997). Mushrooms show a great ability to accumulate this radionuclide, which could be the serious source in food products (Yordanova et al. 2007).
HUMANS
A study on long-lived artificial radionuclides 137Cs in vegetables in Finland conducted in Finland showed that traces of 137Cs deposition can still be seen in vegetables. But it can be concluded that the effective dose of 137Cs intake in vegetables is very low and the radiation-induced health damage caused by this radionuclide is most likely negligible (Kostiainen and Turtainen 2013).
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
WATERS
PLANTS
However, some plants growing in soil with a Cl content below 2 mg/kg may be Cl deficient. Less tolerant plants (e.g., beans and apple trees) are inhibited by Cl concentrations of 460 to 673 mg/L, while resistant plants (e.g., tobacco, cereals, cotton, beets, and spinach) can grow at Cl levels within 887–3546 mg/L (Kabata-Pendias 2011).
HUMANS
Chlorine provides the acid medium for the activation of the stomach enzymes and digestion in the stomach. Also, excess chloride becomes a free radical initiator, which leads to the damage of the arterial walls, which leads to arteriosclerosis.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
Some microorganisms are resistant to Cr6+ due to chromate reduction processes (Ramirez-Diaz et al. 2008). Its content of sewage sludge applied to agricultural land usually varies between 100 and 200 mg/kg (Maján et al. 2001).
WATERS
Bioremediation of Cr-contaminated soils by actinomycetes has recently been proposed, in part for the bioreduction of Cr6+ (Amoroso and Abate 2012; Farmer et al. 1999). The geochemical mobility of Cr is relatively low, resulting in its naturally low concentrations in river water (Gaillardet et al. 2003).
PLANTS
The quite similar Cr content of mosses (average 2.6 mg/kg) collected in Norway, in the years 1990-1995, with its content (average 1.2 mg/kg) collected in the state of Wisconsin (United States), in a almost similar period, showed a stable emissions of Cr to the atmosphere (Berg and Steinnes 1997; Bennett and Wetmore 2003).
HUMANS
Tissue levels of Cr tend to decrease with age, which may be a factor in the increase in diabetes in adults, the incidence of which increased more than sixfold in the second half of the twentieth century. Controversy surrounding Cr supplementation is due in part to the considerable variability in the results of studies that have evaluated the effects of Cr in patients with and without diabetes.
ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
In addition to Mn oxides, birnessite (an oxide mineral of Mn) and goethite (an oxyhydroxide mineral of Fe) play an important role in Co adsorption. 90 Trace elements in abiotic and biotic environments in Łódź (Poland) contain Co up to 100 mg/kg, as effects of pollution from the power plant and motor traffic (Jankiewicz and Adamczyk 2007).
WATERS
The concentration of cobalt in the atmosphere of the remote region (Antarctica) is <0.12 ng/m3, while the air of urban areas contains it up to 3 ng/m3 (Table 13.1).
PLANTS
Of the various endemic plants growing in the polluted area of Northern Europe (Kola Peninsula), the crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) has the highest capacity to accumulate Co, at a pollution-to-background ratio of 206 (Reimann et al. 2001) . The mushroom, common chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) grown in the mountains, contain lower amounts of Co, averaging 390 µg/kg, than those grown on the Baltic coast, averaging 100 µg/kg (Falandysz et al. 2012).
HUMANS
It is recommended for the phytoextraction of Co and 60Co, as well as for the rehabilitation of contaminated soils (Malik et al. 2000). Exposure of humans and animals to levels of Co normally found in the environment is not harmful.
ANIMALS
Serious effects on the lungs, including asthma, pneumonia and wheezing, have been found in people exposed to 0.005 mg Co/m3 while working with hard metal, a Co-W carbide alloy. The richest sources of Co are some products of animal origin, nuts, chocolate and rice (Table 13.3).
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
Goethite shows a strong affinity for Cu sorption, which is controlled by organic acids (Perelomov et al. 2011). The overall solubility of both cationic and anionic forms of Cu decreases at pH 7-8 (Ponizovsky et al. 2006).
WATERS
The content of Cu in the aquatic fauna varies greatly, and is usually higher in coastal waters than in mid-ocean basins. Its average deposition in the EU regions was estimated at 34 g/ha/yr, and varied from 5 to 100 g/ha/yr, with the lowest in Finland and the highest in Austria (Nicholson et al. 2003).
PLANTS
Among various native plants grown in the polluted area of Northern Europe (Kola Peninsula), gooseberry (Empetrum nigrum) has the highest capacity to accumulate Cu, with a pollution-background ratio of 33 (Reimann et al. 2001). Mushroom chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius) grown in mountains in Poland contain higher amounts of Cu, on average 52 mg/kg, than those grown on the Baltic Sea coast, on average 30 mg/kg (Falandysz et al. 2012).
HUMANS
Deficiency or excess of Cu in the organism is observed in metabolic disorders and in various diseases and conditions. In EU countries it is recommended that adult men and women should consume a dietary intake of 0.9 mg Cu/day (SCF 2003).
ANIMALS
A Cu:Mo ratio of 2:1 or less can seriously interfere with Cu absorption and result in Cu deficiency. Concentration of Cu in animal body varies depending on the environment and tissue species (Table 14.4).
IntroductIon
SoIlS
However, in some tropical soils, organically bound, easily phyto-available F can occur, which can be attributed to the synthesis by certain microorganisms (Kabata-Pendias 2011). Source: Van Kabata-Pendias, A., Trace Elements in Soils and Plants, 4th edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton FL, 2011.
WaterS
However, it can be emitted by industries in various other compounds, but the most abundant gaseous F released into the atmosphere is HF. Common concentrations of F in the air of inhabited regions in different countries range from 1 to 7 μg/m3 (Table 15.1).
PlantS
Several compounds are formed in the air, including S-hexafluoride and fluorosilicic acid, due to reactions with various materials, both in vapor and in aerosols. The prolonged impact of increased F values in the atmosphere has harmful effects on plants, humans and animals.
HuManS
Moderate chronic exposure (above 1.5 mg/l water - the WHO guideline for F in water) is more common. There is limited data on F-gas toxicity; the two possible routes of exposure to F are inhalation or skin contact with the gas.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
Its distribution in soil reflects a positive correlation with clay fractions and Fe and Mn hydroxides. The concentrations of Ga in some wastes are as follows (in mg/kg): wastewater treatment plants, 2.2–6.4;.
WATERS
Gallium concentration in moss samples collected in Norway in 1999 was 1.1 mg/kg, and in samples collected during 2000 was 0.09 mg/kg, clearly indicating its lower emission (Berg and Steinnes 1997). This may indicate that atmospheric Ga concentrations in both regions are quite close (Migaszewski et al. 2009).
PLANTS
HUMANS
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is widely used in the microelectronics industry due to its photovoltaic properties. Gallium has been shown to be effective in the treatment of several conditions: (1) accelerated bone resorption, with or without elevated plasma Ca; (2) autoimmune disease and transplant rejection; (3) certain cancers; and (4) infectious disease.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
WATERS
The main sources of Ge in the atmosphere are from coal-fired plants, metallurgical industries and waste incineration. Its emission from coal burning in the United Kingdom was estimated at about 2 kt/yr (Kabata-Pendias and Mukherjee 2007).
PLANTS
The amounts of MM-Ge and DM-Ge forms in the oceans vary depending on the salinity of the water.
HUMANS
It is not necessary for human health; however, its presence in the body has been shown to stimulate metabolism. In the absence of occupational exposure, food represents the most important source of Ge uptake for humans (Table 17.2).
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
The global balance of Au accumulation in sewage streams is estimated at 360 t/year (Eisler 2004).
WATERS
In sea and river bottom sediments, Au can be present in cationic species, of different oxidation states such as Au°, Au+ and Au3+. Pieces of Au ore are also likely to be deposited in cracks or fissures in the rocks, at the bottom of streams and rivers.
PLANTS
Gold particles in the atmosphere mainly come from volcanic emissions in both gaseous and aerosol form. The gold content in lichens is also a good indicator of elevated Au levels in the environment.
HUMANS
While about 80 reports on the in vivo biodistribution and in vitro cell toxicity of AuNPs are available in the literature; there is a lack of correlation between the two fields and there is no clear understanding of the internal effects of NPs (Khlebtsov and Dykman 2011). Indeed, gold is approved in EU countries as a food additive and is assigned the number E175.
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
WATERS
PLANTS
HUMANS
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
Inhibited activities of nitrate-forming bacteria are observed in soils with In contents in the range of 5–9 mg/kg. Compost and sewage sludge contain large amounts of In, 14–20 and 34–94 mg/kg, respectively, and can be its significant sources in soil.
WATERS
PLANTS
HUMANS
Indium concentrations in the atmosphere of remote areas range between 0.05 and 78 pg/m3, with the lowest in Antarctica. Dietary exposure of the UK population to In was mg/day and is not of toxicological concern.
INTRODUCTION
In some countries, there is a recommendation to use iodized salt in food, as a simple way to ensure adequate amounts of I in the human diet. Iodine is a catalytic component in some chemical reactions and is used in the manufacture of some dyes, inks and photosensitive photographic compounds.
SOILS
The anionic form (I–) is highly mobile in soil and is readily leached from soil, especially under anaerobic conditions. It has been estimated that only a small fraction (<1%–25%) of the total I in soils is readily mobile and thus phytoavailable.
WATERS
In areas where soil I levels are <1 mg/kg (e.g. Sri Lanka), symptoms of I deficiency disorders (IDD) are observed in the populations (Chandrajith et al. vide Kabata-Pendias 2011). Therefore, the distance from seas and oceans affects the I status in soils.
PLANTS
The oceans are the main source of natural I in the air, water and soil. Iodine is readily volatilized from soil-plant systems, mainly in the methylated form (CH3I).
HUMANS
150 Trace Elements in Abiotic and Biotic Environments Flooded river valleys, such as the Ganges, are among the most severe I-deficient areas in the world. Therefore, I belong to the trace elements of a high risk of scarcity from a global point of view, and a high risk of excess (Flachowsky 2007).
ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
ENVIRONMENT
HUMANS
INTRODUCTION
Rust (corrosion) is the reaction of Fe with oxygen present in air and with water, and leads to the formation of rust, red-brown hydrated Fe2O3. Distribution of Fe minerals and compounds in soil profile is highly variable and reflects various soil processes, the most important of which are hydrolysis and the formation of complex Fe species.
WATERS
However, the assessment of Fe availability to plants is very difficult due to several factors involved in these processes. Concentrations of Fe in the atmosphere of different cities, from different continents, vary roughly from 130 to 14,000 ng/m3 and are closely related to industrial activities (Table 23.1).
PLANTS
The Fe–Zn interaction leads to the formation of franklinite, ZnFe2O4, which reduces the availability of both metals. The Fe–Se interaction is related to the immobilization of Se by Fe minerals and compounds.
HUMANS
Iron overload can also occur: it is the accumulation of excess Fe in body tissues. Fe-amplified oxidative stress can also increase DNA damage, oxidative activation of pro-cancer factors, and support tumor cell growth.
ANIMALS
The maximum allowable concentration of Fe for cattle and poultry is estimated at 1000 mg Fe/kg, for pigs at 3000 mg/kg (Szkoda et al. 2004). Concentrations of Fe in the animals depend on the type of tissue and the sample (Table 23.3).
INTRODUCTION
SOILS
Lead adsorption on Al-Fe and Mn oxides can be increased due to the presence of sulfate and phosphate compounds (Violante 2013). Its significantly higher levels are in the lower elevation zones compared to the higher zones (Szopka et al. 2013).
