Workshop "International Cooperation on Investi.gation and Research of Marine Natural Resource and Environment"
YEARS OF BELGIAN-VIETNAMESE DEVELOPMENT AND SCIENTIFIC COOPERATION
Luc Hens Vlaamse Instelling voor Technologisch Onderzoek (VITO)
Boeretang 200, B 2400 Moi, Belgium.
Email: luchens51(^gmail.com
1. Introduction
Development and scientific cooperation in Belgium are closely related with the federal organization of the country. The federal state is competent for matters that concern the whole of the country. Among this are (part of) development cooperation and (part of) scientific research policy. Next to this, the regions (Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels) have established both a development cooperation and a science policy. Part of these competences belong to the communities (Dutch, French, and German speaking communities) that are competent for, among others, education and culture. Also the 10 Belgian provinces and some communities support projects on development cooperation, part of it can be research oriented. Belgium is one of the founders of the European Union (EU) that has currently 27 member countries. Europe has established its own science and development policies. In programs related to these policies, Belgium is as a rule a possible partner.
The Belgian-Vietnamese cooperation was initiated more than 3 decades ago.
Diplomatic relations started on the 22"'' of March 1973. This proved to be a most useful instrument to establish long standing and strong ties of friendship and cooperation until today. The general cooperation with Vietnam included during this period almost all aspects of international relationships: trade and economy, agriculture, and poverty reduction, to list just a few ones. It was adjusted to the Vietnamese priorities as they were laid down in main development plans, as e.g.
- Water, rehabilitation and waste management, - Governance and institutional capacity building, - Education and training.
Part of this cooperation has always been in the area of scientific research. It was driven to a large extent by the technical support Belgian groups could provide to Vietnam, and by the almost innumerable problems and case studies a country as Vietnam could offer. Over the years, this collaboration not only resulted in scientific spin of (as measured by the number of projects and papers), but also in deep human friendships, bridging academic and cultural differences.
Hgi thao khoa hoc - Hgp tac Qufle t6 trong dieu tra, nghien cuu tai nguyen va moi truong bien
This paper overviews the science cooperation between the two countries. It is structured according the organization of science policy in Belgium including the federal. Community, provincial and local levels of competence. Also the EU programs are addressed. The second part of the report concems research in the area of oceanography that is a major scientific strength of both countries.
A. THE DEVELOPMENT - SCIENCE COOPERATION NEXUS 2. Cooperation with Belgium as a federal state
2.1. Bilateral programs
2.1.1 Vietnamese-Belgian training center
The in July 2003 approved "National Education for All Action Plan 2003-2015"
includes a number of educational objectives and targets, stressing quality rather than quantity. Unequal educational access, quality differences between regions, limited staff, gender issues and lack of qualitative training are the main challenges within the reform of the Vietnamese education system.
The Belgium Technical Cooperation and the Ministry of Education and Training took necessary steps to identify the TSP's, resulting in relevant information about the appropriate training programs.
A first session of courses focused on:
- Environment, ecology and sustainable management;
Training of officials in local governments, located in the northem mountainous regions;
- Improving the management and leadership capacity of directors at colleges and universities;
- Information technology;
- Intensive training of the English language.
2.1.2 Examples of other direct bilateral programs
- Institutional capacity building of the Vietnamese Women's Union (VWU) to manage credit and savings programs for poor rural women (Vietnamese-Belgian Credit Project) (since 1997)
- Tan Hoa-Lo Gom rehabilitation of the canal and urban renewal in Ho Chi Minh City (2001-2007)
- Improving general living standards by water access in the Phu My Town (Binh Dinh province) (2005-2008)
- Improving sanitation and protection of the environment in the cities Phan Ri Cua and Lien Huong, Tuy Phong district (2008-2009)
- Improving sanitation and environmental protection in the city of Tuy Hoa (Phu Yen province) (2006-2009)
- Irrigation network in Ninh Phoc district (county Ninh Thuan) (2006-2009)
Workshop "International Cooperation on Investigation and Research of Marine Natural Resouree and Environment"
Improving the irrigation system in the district Phu My (Binh Dinh Thuan) (2006-2008)
2.1.3. Belgian Government scholarships
Belgium always paid much attention to the development of capacity, by granting scholarships to Vietnamese students. Already in 1978, the Belgian Govemment assigned 38 scholarships for undergraduate and postgraduate Vietnamese students in Belgium. This eariy initiative caused a solid standard for the development of the Belgian scholarship program today. The amount of grants continuously increased from only a few a year during the 90's, to about 40 grants per year since 2004. In accordance with the socio-economic development strategy of Vietnam, the bilateral grants are mainly assigned in the sectors: environment, agriculture and rural development, education, health and good govemance. The Brussels master degree in human ecology, atoacted since the early 1990ies Vietnamese students on a yearly basis. Since 2001, in total, approximately 120 Vietnamese students achieved a Master degree and 40 acquired a PhD.
The Belgian government assigns since 2002 local scholarships (ex. Asian Institute of Technology) and collaborated in the establishment of a training center in 2006. Another effective type of scholarship is the possibilify for Vietnamese officials to participate in short-term training sessions. Besides bilateral grants, the Belgian government assigns grants to Vietnamese students through the University Councils of the Flemish and French communify as well: Flemish Interuniversity Council University Development cooperation (VLIR-UOS) and the Conseil Interuniversitaire de la Communaute Franfaise de Belgique - Commission de Cooperation Universitaire au developpement (CUD).
2.1.4. Institute for Tropical Medicine
The "Prince Leopold Institute for Tropical Medicine" (ITG) is a public service that promotes scientific research, training and services for human and animal medicine. Tropical diseases and health in developing countries are the main fields of expertise. It is one of the main Belgian science institotions in the collaboration with tropical and subtropical countries. Since the 80's the ITG supports Vietnamese researchers, but close collaboration between the National Institute for Malaria, Parasitology and Entomology (NIMPE) originated in 1995.
The cooperation started with a bilateral project on malaria control in the Hoa Binh province, northern Vietnam (1995-2002). Support of the two Belgian Development Cooperation Agreements 1998-2002 and 2003-2007 reinforced the research capacity of the NIMPE. A third agreement is scheduled for the period 2008-2013.
This most recent agreement aims at:
Institutional cooperation to reinforce prevention and control of malaria and cysticercosis in Southeast Asia;
Hfli thao khoa hgc - Hgp tac Qufle te trong dieu tra. nghien cim tai nguyen va mfli truflng biln
Improving the results of the past decade to decrease malaria in high-risk areas and support research concerning risk factors, malaria transfer and prevention;
Performing joint regional research, comparing results and accomplishing common cross-border strategies.
2.1.5 Scientific-technological cooperation (BELSPO)
On the 22"'' of November 2002, a bilateral agreement concerning scientific and technological cooperation was founded between Belgium and Vietnam, which offers a suitable implementation frame for cooperation projects related to federal competences. Successful results of common ad-hoc aetivhies using earth observation- and information systems for land- and water management (administered by the Belgian Federal Science Policy, BELSPO) and other scientific fields of interests founded the agreement.
This bilateral cooperation doesn't only encourage networking between Belgian and Vietnamese experts, but establishes sustainable partnerships in a broader international context as well (such as the EU Framework and the UN programs).
BELSPO assigned so far about €2.8 million, with priorify to:
• Aquaculture and related environmental and food security projects (calls from 2002 to 2006);
• Biodiversity and agro-biotechnology for new materials, renewable energy and medicines (call 2006).
Representative examples of Belspo funded projects are Research and implement the GIS database of the water level for the annual fiooding area in Mekong delta (2004-2006) and Integrated and strategic environmental impact assessment of port developments in the Vung Tau area (South Vietnam (2004-2006)
Furthermore, the "Royal Museums for Art and History" in Brussels supported archaeological projects, especially in ceramics, in collaboration with the "Institute of Archeology" in Hanoi. A unique exhibition on ancient Vietnamese art resulted from this cooperation.
3. Cooperation with Flanders
3.1 Flemish Agency for International Cooperation (VAIS)
The Flemish Government exerts since 1993 its own development cooperation through the Flemish Agency for International cooperation (VAIS). The agency wants to make a contribution in filling the gap between the north and the south.
Under the direct bilateral cooperation, the VAIS cooperates with the three partner countries South-Africa, Mozambique and Malawi. Multilateral aid is conducted by cooperation agreements with other muhilateral organizations like UNICEF, UNAIDS, FAO, etc.
Next to this VAIS cooperation, each Flemish minister has a budget to finance
Workshop --Inlemational Cooperation on Invesugation and Research of Marine Natural Resouree and Environment--
initiatives within the area of his/her competences. In particular in the area of mobility on the sea and on land, a long standing collaboration with Vietnam has been established. Collaborating organizations included VIWA, VINAMARINE, and IMER/VAST.
3.2 VVOB
The Federal and the Flemish Ministry of Development Cooperation fund the Flemish Association for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance (VVOB). This cooperation with Vietnam started in 1992. VVOB aspires sustainable solutions for education and training challenges in the context of local policy guidelines, based on strategic partnerships. To achieve these objectives, they provide experts and services, to support the development of local capacity development.
Theplan for 2008 - 2013 wants to improve the quality of education and extend agricultural systems, contributing to sustainable human development and poverty reduction in Vietnam.
3.3 VLIR-UOS
The Flemish Interuniversity Council (VLIR) is a consultation between Flemish universities and the Belgian government concerning research and higher education.
The VLIR-UOS department (University Development cooperation) manages the funds for university development cooperation, while the administration coordinates the university development cooperation of the Flemish academic community (universities and colleges).
Activities of VLIR-UOS are based on quinquennial plans, approved by the Belgian Minister of Development Cooperation.
3 3.1 Institutional university cooperation (lUC)
Within VLIR-UOS, a distinction is made between academic development cooperation in the North and programs for the South. South programs offer opportunities for small one-) ear initiatives (South initiatives), medium-term project cooperation between Flemish academic staff and academic staff in development countries (own initiatives) and institutional university cooperation (lUC) on long term.
The overall objective of the lUC program is to strengthen local universities as an institution, to increase their role as a developing actor in society. VLIR-UOS wants to achieve this goal by improving institutional management and the quality of local education, research and social services. Examples of lUC programs with Vietnam are:
(a) Can Tho University, 1998-2007
(b) Hanoi University of Technology (HUT), 1998-2007
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3.3.2 Own Initiatives Programs in Vietnam
The "Own Initiatives Program" funds research and educational projects, launched by academics at Flemish universities. These projects need to be accomplished in close collaboration with an academic partner in a developing country, improving the education and / or research capacity of local partners through exchange of knowledge, cooperation and institutional reinforcement Examples of currently completed projects in Vietnam are:
• KU Leuven - Rural development in mountainous karsf areas;
• UGent - Conservative selection and dissemination of fruit tree varieties using asexual methods;
• KULeuven - Completion of phosphorus potential within depleted soils, in the central highlands and the eastern region of South Vietnam;
• Ghent University - Epidemiology of zoonotic diseases among the domestic pig in North Vietnam;
4. Cooperation with Wallonia 4.1 APE FE
APEFE (Association For Education and Training Abroad) was initially set up to apply know-how of French-speaking teachers in development countries. Today the association still invests in partnerships and networks by scientific and technical assistance.
APEFE projects in Vietnam by the end of 2006 are:
• Training in secondary, vocational and higher education;
• Infrastructure and different social services and culture;
• Health (regional intervention from Laos);
• Agriculture reform in the Ha Nam province.
A multiannukl program was established by the APEFE in 2008, based on a local expertise approach in the two sectors education (secondary and higher education) and professional education (training in the protection, restoration and valorization of heritage).
Despite rapid economic growth, the Vietnamese government wants to rely on its cultural heritage and maintain touristic assets. On request of The Vietnamese Ministry of Culture, the APEFE launched a national training program for preserving and restoring museum art. The program was established in collaboration with national museums and cultural departments in the Universities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City.
4.2 The commission universitaire pour le ileveloppement (CUD)
The "Commission Universitaire pour le Developpement", CUD (Permanent University Committee for Development Cooperation) is responsible for the
Workshop "International Cooperation on Investigation and Researeh of Ma'me Natural Resource and Environment"
implementation of the university development cooperation among the French- speaking universities in Belgium. She must strengthen universities and researeh departments in development countries by elaborating principal assignments like training, research and social services.
Next to Vietnamese students, with CUD grants who specialize in different areas in Belgium, the CUD developed many programs and university cooperation projects in Vietnam. Institutional reinforcement of two academic institutions in Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi are combined with strategic research projects at various locations in the country. Vietnam is one of the main university cooperation partners for French-speaking universities in Belgium. As 3"' most important partner the CUD's financial budget comprised €1,285,000 in 2006. Health and agriculture were next to applied sciences aiid education the most significant investment fields.
Examples of projects in Vietnam are:
.4 university training center for health personnel in Ho Chi Minh City Direct inter-university projects
Internship in Marine, River and Maritime Technology 5. Cooperation at provincial level
5. / East Flanders Province
Provinces in Belgium have their .own development cooperation policy. One of the examples that is relevant to illustrate cooperation with Vietnam are the activities of the East Flanders province in the Flemish part of the country. The cooperation dates from 2000 and is meanwhile structured. Milestones in this cooperation entail: (a) Urbanization project in Ho Chi Minh City (2000): (b) A targeted economical and scientific cooperation (2003); and (c) Institutionalization of the cooperation: the establishment of the Flanders Economic Office (2007)
6. Cooperation by municipalities 61 CityofGeel
Geel, a municipality in the Belgian province of Antwerp, established its own development cooperation association. The "Geelse ontwikkelingssamenwerking"
(GOS) emerged in 1978 as unincorporated association, providing financial means 10 development projects were Geel residents are involved in. Several Geel residents established the non-profit organization Donxa, which is very active in Vietnam.
Focal points of this local development cooperation are:
Education: building schools, purchasing school fumiture and course material, payment of apprenticeship fee, etc.
Living accommodation: improving liousing and sanitary faeilhies
• Economical support: supporting economic disadvantaged occupations
• Health care: purchasing medical equipment, providing vaccinations, surgery assistance for disabled children, etc.
HQI thao khoa hoc - Hgp tac Qufle te trong diflu tra, nghien cuu tai nguyen va moi truong bien
Examples of projects established in this context are:
(a) Relief house project in Co Lpa (2002) (b) Hepatitis vaccination project
7. Development Cooperation between the EC and Vietnam 7. / Anteceileiits
Vietnam and the European Commission (EC) established diplomatic relations by the end of 1990. July 1995, the Vietnam-EU Trade and Cooperation agreement paved the way to develop bilateral relations. On the occasion of his visit to Vietnam in November 2007, EC President Jose Manuel Barroso agreed with Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung to seek a further strengthening of bilateral relations by negotiating a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement. In terms of assistance, cooperation between the EC and Vietnam has evolved from support to returnees and refugees following the end of the US-Vietnam war to support for Vietnam's economic and social reforms. In 2008, the EC managed a cooperation portfolio of 12 ongoing bilateral projects with an EC contribution of approximately €78 million, and general and sectoral budget support worth around €71 million. The EU as a whole is one of Vietnam's largest donors on development assistance, with a total of 658.75 million planned for 2009.
7.2 Objectives
In its relations towards Vietnam, the European community aims at:
Supporting the sustainable economic development of Vietnam and the improvement of living conditions of the poor;
Encouraging the integration of Vietnam in the world economy by bringing it into the world trading system, and supporting the process of economic and social reforms;
Supporting Vietnam's transition to an open society based on sound governance, the rule of law and respect for human rights;
• Raising the profile of the European Union in Vietnam.
To realize these aims the following set of principles is handled:
(a) The enhancement of human development, and (b) The integration of Vietnam into the international economy
7.3 European Community Response Strategy (2007 - 2013) 7.3.1 The choice of focal sectors
Under the Development Cooperation Instrument an indicative allocation of
€304 million has been earmarked for Vietnam for the period 2007-2013. This will be divided as follows:
Multi-annual Indicative Program 1, covering 2007-2010: €160 million Multi-annual Indicative Program II, covering 2011-2013: 6144 million
Workshop "International CooperationJ)n investigation and Researeh of Marine Nanrral Resource and Environmenf
The EC-Vietnam strategy for 2007-2013 will be concentrated on: (i) Suppon for Vietnam's Socio-economic Development Plan and (ii) Support for the Health Sector. Actions in the field of trade-related assistance and to support to the EC- Vietnam strategic dialogue, including support to activities identified in the EC- Vietnam sub-group on "Co-operation in institution building, administrative reform, governance and human rights" are also foreseen in the period of the Response Strategy.
7.3.2 Cross-cutting issues
These are issues that are cross cutting trough all programs and all projects. They include gender, environment, democracy, good governance, and human rights.
7.4 Programs
Vietnam is an eligible partner in different EU programs. The 7"' framework programme is currently the most important one.
B. MARITIME SCIENCE AND OCEANOGRAPHY 8. Scientific technological cooperation (BELSPO)
Different ocean and marine related projects were funded in the Belspo framework. Examples entail:
*. / Improvement of shrimp proiluction sustainability and safety in Vietnam The objective of the project was to evaluate the effects of Vietnamese shrimp production methods and the use of antibiotics on shrimp physiology and health as well as on the quality and safety of the final product in order to develop methodologies for the analysis of shrimp quality and safety, in respect with international food regulations.
Results from surveys indicated that 155 kinds of drugs and chemicals are currently used in shrimp farming in North and South Viet Nam, including 31 antibiotics. 49 products used as pesticides and disinfectants, and 21 for water treatment. Fluoroquinolones (enrofloxaein, norfioxaein) are now frequently used by shrimp farmers.
Rapid screening methods (ELISA and Belgian kidney test) have been adapted to shrimp tissues
Very sensitive analytical methods based on LC-MMS have been successfiilly developed for the quantification of residues of antibiotics and their validation.
The research was focused on 3 classes of antibiotics: nitrofurans, (nuoro)quinolones and phenicols. Those developments and the validation of the nitrofurans method of analysis were done according to European legislation and ISO 17025 norm. The techniques have been applied to shrimp, water and sediment samples collected in laboratory experiments, shrimp farms and mangrove areas.
1 Ifli thao khoa hpc - Hop tac Qufle te Irong dieu ua. nghien cim tai nguyen va mfli truong bien
• Methodologies to measure oxidative stress biomarkers have been successfully adapted in different shrimp tissues (hepatopanereas, gills and/or hemolymph).
This set of biomarkers was used to assess the health statos of shrimp exposed to 2 antibiotics (enrofloxaein or furazolidone) during contamination and decontamination phases in laboratory and in field conditions (intensive and improved extensive systems). Additionally, these biomarkers were measured in shrimps sampled in mangrove and organic farm areas. Moreover, experimental conditions have been defined to run 2 dimensional gel electrophoresis on shrimp hemolymph, and the "Protein Expression Signatures" have been obtained in shrimps exposed to antibiotics in laboratory or field conditions. It emerges from laboratory and field experiments that, even if significant residue accumulations occur in muscle (sometimes about the critical limit), furazolidone and enrofloxaein have only few effects on biochemical biomarkers and on protein expression profiles in Penaeus monodon. However, the farming system seems to significantly affect these biological parameters.
Four Vietnamese scientists have been trained to analytical (ELISA, Belgian kidney test, LC-MMS) and biochemical (biomarker system) methods through extended stages in Belgium and in situ training in Can Tho University to end- users (11 peoples, representative of governmental agencies for the control of fisheries products). A manual based on quality insurance for the analysis of antibiotics in shrimps according to European legislation and ISO 17025 norm will be edited soon.
8.2 Novel approaches for viral disease management in shrimp farming in Vietnam
The project aims to study the prevalence of viral diseases in shrimp farms in the Mekong Delta. It furthermore aims to develop a standardized viral challenge test as a tool to study the pathogenesis of WSSV and to evaluate the effect of new neutraceuticals, immunoinodulators, "vaceins", environmentally safe antiviral products and various management techniques on susceptibility of shrimp to viral diseases.
Although more detailed data analyses is still to be performed, the epidemiological study points out a high prevalence of WSSV in shrimp farming areas in Vietnam. Several risk factors could be pinpointed. The standardized A;hallenge models developed proved very useful to study the effect of various factors on the outcome of a WSSV infection. Of the different factors studied, high water temperature was the most efficient in controlling WSSV infections. Even if this might not be directly applicable in the field, this technique allows subjecting shrimp w a more controlled infection, which is a very useful tool to study the effect of other factors. The detailed pathogenesis study furthermore has unraveled the primary site(s) of viral replication, how WSSV spreads throughout the organs and tissues, and what is the cause of death due to WSSV infection.
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9. Flanders
9.1 VLIR-UOS: University cooperation
Study of aquatic environment in Vinh Chau Bac Lieu coastlines and sustainable development of aquaculture activities
The study aims to improve the cyst yields, cyst quality in order to raise the annual income of the farmers who is living in this region.
During phase 1, our focuses on improved Artemia culture techniques via interdisciplinary research and based on a standard analysis of pond bottom soil samples, water samples, quantitative advices can be forwarded to the Artemia growers on how to fertilize and on stocking density to avoid the problem of algae bloom and sediment settling. Results in laboratory indicated that together with nutrients from water, primary production in Artemia ponds fluctuated accordingly the nutrients from pond bottom (i.e. rich versus poor organic pond bottom). Algae communities in the other hand also indicated that they did effect on Artemia development and its productivity, and so far Chaetorecos to be proved as a best food for Artemia culture. However, again results were still in laboratory conditions.
To validate results came out from laboratory in field area for the second phase, therefore, are main task in phase 2 of the researeh.
During phase 2 one investigates to understand the mechanisms of the environmental conditions for Artemia pond culture; Algal bloom control / selected algal species as suitable food for Artemia / Soil and nutrient interaction. Research results are transferred to farmers to improve their knowledge on pond production.
9.2 International course on environmental management in ports
The port of Antwerp in collaboration with the university in the same city, organizes yearly a short term course on environmental management for ports. The course is supported by the Flemish community. Participants benefit from a grant to facilitate travel to and a six weeks stay in Belgium. Yearly the course hosts Vietnamese candidates. Coworkers of Vietnamese administrations and Vietnamese ports were trained in this framework.
10. Wallonia
University Commission for Development (CUD)
The CUD supports recently an internship in marine, river and maritime technology for SME's and public companies in Southeast Asia. The training is organized in collaboration between the Univesite of Liege (Prof Jean Marchal) and the Vietnamese Maritime University in Haiphong. This intemship will transfer knowledge and technology to promote safefy and effectiveness of navigation and improve the mobility of people and products. Energy-efficiency and environment^
friendliness are emphasized as well in the maritime internship.
Hfli thao khoa hgc - Hgp tac Qufle tfl trong diSu tra, nghien cilu tai nguyen va mfli truflng bifln
11. Conclusion / / . / General
This report is a first attempt to map the science cooperation between Vietaam and Belgium. It is targeted to reveal the structore of this cooperation between both countries. The examples of projects are illustrations and are incomplete. Moreover the document does not focus on quantitative parameters as fluxes of money or measured output indicators. The report rather provides a qualitative overview and assessment of more than 30 years of collaboration.
Vietnam has a long standing cooperation with Belgium. Scientific cooperation has always been part of the wider general cooperation that often has economic accents. Although hard quantitative indicators are not available at this moment, the cooperation between Vietnamese and Belgian scientists proved to be a win-win operation for both sides. The money invested in the projects thus far is shown to have an excellent cost/benefit ratio.
On the other hand, the scientific cooperation leaves room for improvement. In Europe, the scientific activity is increasingly driven by measurable parameters as number of publications and qualify of the journals where the papers are published.
Universities and researeh organizations are increasingly financed on the basis of these criteria. Ph. D. works and academic C.V.s are to an increasing extent assessed on this basis. In Vietnani this academic culture is different, albeit changing. It has no doubt benefits to adjust the Vietnamese and the European approach on publications.
Another important aspect of the collaboration is the complex way in which the project funding in Belgium is structured. Although this fragmented situation proved to allow collaboration on the long term, it impairs mainstreaming and real longer term projects. Only the VLIR/IUS projects span a period of 10 years but are more targeted towards logistic support, than to long standing collaboration on a particular issue of importance for both countries.
11.2 Maritime science and oceanography
Europe has a strong tradition on maritime science and oceanography. Although it is definitely possible to find an array of example projects - this report provides some - marine sciences are not a major accent in the cooperation. Rather the existing projects depend on individual stakeholders. The port of Antwerp has had a main impact with projects involving among others VINAMARfNE, VIWA, the ports of Hai Phong and Danang, and researeh organizations as IMER/VAST. Also Ghent Universify established a limited tradition that is based on interdisciplinary research on shrimp aquaculture. As a whole however, the research area of marine, environmental quality and resources is relatively under addressed when compared to the capacity and interest of both countries in this science domain.
