2.2 Who is a Refugee?
2.3.3 Experiences in the Host Country (Post-Migration)
2.3.3.1 Acculturation Strategies
The fundamental aspect that characterises host country experiences is acculturation. Culture can be defined as norms values, beliefs and behaviours that a group of people agree to accept. It is a process in which people from different cultural backgrounds begin to follow the norms and values of a new society that they live in (Papadopoulos, 2007). Taloyan, Johansson, Saleh-Stattin and Al-Windi (2011) defined acculturation as cultural changes and consequences of long contact between two different cultural groups. McBrien (2005) views acculturation as the change that occurs to an individual as a result of coming into contact with people from a different cultural
34 background. Acculturation would occur in the sense that the person would be influenced to follow the ethos and general lifestyle of people in the new culture.
According to Kaplan (2009): “acculturation is related to culture shock and it refers to the process of transition that is brought about by the meeting of peoples from two different cultures” (p. 51).
When refugee children move to a new society, they will be faced with a challenge of understanding the culture of the host country. They have to understand the norms, values and principles of the new culture so that they may adjust. Acculturation and adjustment are encountered by refugee children when they settle in the host country (Bhugra, et al. 2011). They will have to abandon their home culture and follow the cultural norms of the host country.
Acculturation of refugee children is characterised by stressful activities that include learning the new language and values of the new culture and also worrying about basic needs such as food, shelter and education (Gonidakis et al., 2011). Acculturation is very stressful to refugee children;
(Kaplan, 2009) in the sense that it requires them to quickly adjust to a new culture and deal with the difficult task of establishing life in a new country. There could be some opportunities for refugees, but they may be hard to attain because they will be struggling to fit into the new society.
Taloyan et al. (2011) argued that Kurdish refugees in Sweden viewed life in a new setting as having the following facets: opportunities, resources and difficulties. Opportunities that Kurdish refugees had were the provision of rights and a chance for identity constructions. They however had difficulties in getting jobs. This caused parents to find it hard to pay for their children’s education costs. They did not have adequate resources and it was not easy for them to adapt to a new environment (Taloyan et al., 2011).
Dodds et al. (2010) contend that refugees from Somalia who went to reside in Australia had often experienced challenges of resettlement. This was because they did not have financial resources to support their families and they did not have opportunities to advance their studies.
Thus, resources, opportunities and difficulties characterise refugees’ lives in different host communities. Refugees have to understand the culture of the host communities so that they may
35 integrate and make use of different emerging opportunities (Dodds et al., 2010; Taloyan et al., 2011).
Hanson-Easey and Augoustinos (2010) affirmed that cultural differences can impede refugee integration. This is because culture plays a big role in distressing refugees and causes them to be sick and tired of trying to fit into a society that may be very hostile to them (Bhugra et al., 2011).
Acculturation is characterised by psychosocial challenges (Kirchner & Patiño, 2011). The process is very demanding. The acculturative stress is usually high when refugees just arrive in the host country and it lessens when they get accustomed to the new culture. A study of immigrants living in Athens about the relationship between acculturation factors and depression symptoms showed that the more acculturated the immigrants were, the less depressive symptoms they would display (Gonidakis et al., 2011). When refugees are still new to the environment, they learn from people in the host communities until the time they understand the norms, values and culture of that society (Dicum, 2005).
According to Berry (1997) some refugee children may not adhere to all facets of the culture of the host country. They may practice some norms and values of their home countries. Other refugees may not take time before they put their cultural practices aside and follow what people of the host country would be doing. Thus, acculturation is marked by accepting or rejecting cultural practices of the host country.
Yakushko, Backhaus, Watson, Ngaruiya and Gonzalez (2008) contend that frameworks of acculturation emphasize several patterns consisting of rejecting or accepting host communities’
cultural values and practices, as well as rejecting or maintaining immigrants’ home cultural values and practices. Berry designed a framework of acculturation which can be used to explain the predicament of refugee children. According to Berry (1997) two factors underlie the framework, namely: i) the factor to which people wish to maintain their heritage, culture and identity; and ii) the factor to which people seek involvement with the larger society. The former implies that people decide whether or not to keep their original cultural identity and characteristics. The latter implies whether or not to acquire the host culture’s identity and characteristics (MacLachlan & McGee, 2007).
36 According to Berry (1997) there are four acculturation strategies:
i) Assimilation (Adapting to the culture of the host country completely);
ii) Separation (Following culture of the home country only);
iii) Integration or biculturalism (Following cultures of host and home countries); and iv) Marginalization (exclusion by both cultures) (Perez-Escamilla & Putnik, 2007).
According to Berry (1997) the intersection of the two factors, whether positive or negative, influences the four strategies. The acculturation strategies of refugee children are illustrated in figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Acculturation Strategies of Refugees
Source: (Berry, 1997, p. 10)
Maintenance of Heritage Culture and Identity
Relations sought among host society
Assimilation Separation
Integration Marginalization
+ -
-
+
37 Berry (1997) asserts that an assimilation strategy would be formed when refugee children decide to follow the culture of the host country. They would not be maintaining their cultural identity nor seeking to integrate the different cultures. According to Beiser (2009) assimilation theory postulates that immigrants abandon their heritage customs, beliefs and values and begin to take part in what happens in the dominant culture. Refugee children would try by all means to become like host country citizens. They will have no interest in keeping their cultural principles.
They will adhere to the culture of the host country in terms of its norms, values and behaviours (Berry, Phinney, Sam & Vedder, 2006). Tienda and Haskins (2011) contend that large numbers of refugees who migrate to America assimilate with the host society. Perez-Escamilla and Putnik (2007) claimed that Latinos ended up giving up their Hispanic culture completely and totally assimilating into the Anglo-American mainstream culture, following the ‘melting pot’ social concept. According to MacLachlan and McGee (2007) a ‘melting pot’ occurs when refugees assimilate by choice.
When individuals are forced to assimilate, this forms a ‘pressure cooker’ situation (Berry, 1997).
Pressure cooker occurs when refugee children are compelled to abandon their cultural identities in order to follow that of the host society. In contrast to assimilation, Berry (1997) argues that when people stick to the cultural practices of their home country without following the norms and values of the host country, this would be the separation strategy. Berry et al., (2006) contend that separation happens when an individual seeks to maintain the culture of his/her home country and avoid practicing norms and values of the new culture. Choi (2011) argues that Sae-ter-mins who arrived in South Korea faced numerous problems adjusting and adapting to South Korea.
They sought to maintain their original culture and separated themselves from the culture of the host society.
Integration occurs when there is an interest in following the host country’s culture and at the same time maintaining one’s original norms and values. A person would be maintaining cultural practices from his/her home country and at the same time taking part in the culture of people who live in the new society that he/she settles (Berry, 1997). According to Beiser (2009) integration is about balancing two competing cultures (home and host countries cultures). There would be no domination of cultures since values, beliefs and practices of both countries would be
38 retained. Refugee children will follow the culture of the host country and at the same time maintain the integrity of their original culture (Berry et al., 2006).
Language acquisition plays a fundamental role in the integration strategy. If one can speak the language of the host country, it would be easier for him/her to follow other cultural practices.
Phillimore (2011) states that in order to evaluate whether or not refugee children acculturated through integration, it is important to look at the level of their language acquisition. Pacheco (2011) states that refugee children’s ability to speak the language of the host country enables them to successfully integrate into a new culture. If refugees cannot speak the language of the host country, they are likely to be isolated and face different kinds of ill-treatment from citizens.
Taloyan et al. (2011) contend that the majority of Kurdish people integrated their culture and Swedish culture and were able to handle the stressful experiences and to adjust to life in Sweden because they grasped the language. In contrast, refugees in Australia faced tremendous cultural differences as they attempted to maintain their culture and at the same time faced the challenge of following the culture of the host community (Hanson-Easey & Augoustinos, 2010). Somali refugees in America had problems to settle and adapt because of the need to integrate their culture and that of the host country (Roxas, 2011b). It becomes difficult to sustain both cultures, and that is why refugee children who try to acculturate by integration find it very challenging.
When children try to integrate culture, they will end up having acculturative stress because it is difficult to maintain different competing cultures at the same time. Birman et al. (2008) are of the opinion that acculturative stress among refugee children is a result of challenges that they encounter when they integrate their original culture and the host country’s. In some instances, when children try to integrate their culture, they may end up having one culture dominating the other. With the passage of time, the home culture can be marginalized.
Marginalisation results when a person decides not to follow cultural practices of the home and host countries (Berry et al., 2006). Some refugees encounter traumatic pre-migration experiences such as prolonged persecution and they will not have an interest in maintaining their cultural identities when they get to the host country. They may want to follow the culture of the host
39 country, but may decide not to as a result of negative experiences such as xenophobia, discrimination and violence. As a result, refugee children will not have any culture that they would be following. According to Berry (1997) marginalization occurs when refugees do not maintain their culture or follow the culture of the host country when they settle.
Berry’s model was criticised for not explaining whose culture refugees would be following when they adopt a marginalization strategy. It is important to note that Berry’s model of acculturation has been challenged and continues to be a subject of critical debate (MacLachlan & McGee, 2007). Perez-Escamilla and Putnik (2007) acknowledged the four acculturation strategies in Berry’s model, but also reported that many more phases (other than the four) exist on acculturation. Regardless of the acculturation strategy that a refugee child adopts, the process is strenuous and stressful. Kelly (2010) postulates that the need to negotiate a new culture results in some refugees experiencing discrimination, depression, and PTSD.