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Owen-Jackson (2000), as cited in Crossfield, Daugherty and Merril (2004, p.2), states that when teaching Technology Education it is extremely important for teachers to be aware of what is taught in the course and why it is part of the curriculum. McCracken (2000), as cited in Crossfield et al. (2004, p.2), also suggests that it is important that teachers have a good understanding of the design process and the nature of Technology Education, as both of these aspects are interdependent of each other. According to McCraken (2000), as cited in Crossfield et al. (2004, p. 3), “Technology would be incomplete without design, and design cannot be fully appreciated without an understanding of technology”.
Thus it would be in order to say that for teachers to teach Technology Education it is imperative that they understand how the design process works. The design process consists of five main steps: investigate, design, make, evaluate and communicate.
Investigation: Requires the learner to gain more information and insight regarding a particular situation or problem, evaluating existing products and performing practical tests to get a better understanding of materials and products. This is done so that learners can make informed choices.
Designing: Once clarity is gained regarding the problem and the specifications are considered, ideas are generated. Most often these are in the form of drawings. The initial idea is not necessarily the best. This part of the design process requires the learners to have an understanding of graphics, the use of two- and three-dimensional drawings, planning and modeling. The drawing should be in detail, including notes, instructions and dimensions.
Making: This is when the learner uses various materials and tools to develop the solution to the problem. This process involves numerous skills, building, measuring, mixing and modifying. When making the product the learners should follow the design that was generated in the previous stage; modifications are allowed.
Evaluation: This is when the learner looks at the solution and evaluates the course of action that he or she has taken in coming up with a solution. Changes and improvements can be suggested by teachers or peers, and the learner has the option to modify or not. Final evaluation of the manufactured product is carried out according to specifications by the teacher.
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Communication: The presentation of the previous stages in either an oral, written or graphic format. This is basically a record of the process the learner embarked on from inception to the final, made product (DoE, 2002).
Models of how to use the design process have emerged and have been of great help to non- specialist teachers teaching Technology Education. Mawson (2003), however, warns us of the dangers of this when he acknowledges that models have been a great help and a guide to many non-specialist teachers, but have also become increasingly dangerous when the prescribed steps are completed in order, and turn the design and technology process into a series of products (Mawson, 2003, p. 120).
Mawson states that one of the reasons Technology Education teachers follow the design process is because many Technology Education teachers are non-specialist teachers and have very little understanding of how designing works. The design process models provide them with some structure which they could follow and organise into their classroom activities.
These models also give the non-specialist teacher a sense of security and guidance on how to proceed (Mawson, 2003, p. 120).
2.4.1. Approach to teaching Technology Education in South Africa
The Technology Education policy document (DoE, 2002, p. 4) defines Technology Education as “The use of knowledge, skills and resources to meet the people’s needs and wants by developing practical solutions to problems, taking social and environmental factors into consideration.”
Within the South African context the problem-solving element and design-make-appraise approach to Technology Education are clearly evident. In order to develop practical solutions to technological problems learners are to follow the design or technological process, which involves investigation, designing, developing, evaluating and communicating ideas (DoE, 2007).
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Technology Education within the South African context consists of three LOs. These are interrelated and based on the following categories:
Technological processes and skills;
Technological knowledge and understanding; and
The interrelationships between technology, society and the environment.
Each of these LOs can be stated as follows:
LO1: Encompasses the technological processes (design process), which is referred to as the creative, interactive approach, and the associated skills are investigate, design, make, evaluate and communicate.
LO2: Technological knowledge and understanding, which outlines the three core-content areas that we need to focus on: processing, structures and systems and control.
LO3: Deals with technology, society and the environment. Learners become aware of values, beliefs and traditions and how these aspects shape people’s perceptions and view of technology. Learners also learn to understand the link between technology, science and the environment (Pudi, 2007; DoE, 2002).
LO1 is seen as the “backbone” of Technology Education in the NCS. Since the aim of LO1 is to develop technological skills, it needs to be used as an integrating LO with LO2 and LO3, to structure learning programmes that would develop learners’ skills, knowledge, values and attitudes in a holistic way (DoE, 2002).
Technology Education is about thinking and doing. A unique methodology relating to classroom practice was developed in England and Wales by the Nuffield Design and Technology Project. This approach to teaching Technology Education has been adopted and adapted to suit the South African context. The adoption of this pedagogy provides teachers with a clear framework to develop coherent units of work and combine procedural knowledge and conceptual knowledge effectively (Rauscher, 2010; Barlex, 2000; Banks, 2000).
Technology Education in South Africa is project-based. In order to develop coherent units of work around a problem-solving task the following operational approaches have been adopted
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as classroom practice for Technology Education: capability tasks, resource tasks and case studies.
Capability tasks involve the designing and making of a product. These tasks follow the technology process whereby the learners design, make and evaluate a product in response to a need or problem. These tasks are very often structured to reveal learners’ understanding of conceptual knowledge gained during resource tasks.
Resources tasks are shorter, practical tasks that are deliberately designed and structured to teach knowledge, skills and values. These focused tasks impart conceptual knowledge and in turn contribute to the quality of the capability task. They can also be referred to as focused tasks; they add authenticity to Technology Education and link learning in schools with the wider community.
Case studies have been included in the approach to teach Technology Education.
These are tasks that reflect on the designs and technologies of others currently living in our society or living at another time or in another place.
The relationship that exists between these tasks enables technology capability to develop progressively. Knowledge, skills and concepts grasped during resource tasks and case studies are used by the learners to develop and create a solution to the problem based on the context within (Rauscher, 2010; Barlex, 2000; Banks, 2000)
Technology Education practices within the South African context must include conceptual knowledge (“knowing that”) of technology products as well as procedural knowledge (“knowing how”) on the designing and manufacturing of such products. Although both forms of knowledge can be distinguished, they cannot be separated. Generally, in Technology lessons procedural knowledge is developed in a stage-oriented format called the design process. In comparison to conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge cannot be taught. In the words of Ropohol, as cited in Van Niekerk et al. (2005, p. 2): “Technical know-how can be gained by practice only”.
Technology Education is concerned with developing learners’ capability. Technological capability, according to Welch and Barlex (2004), includes the processes that learners experience as well as the skill and understanding that they develop and employ. Since we are
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aiming at assessing learner capability, assessment in Technology becomes complex because we are looking for more than just a display of knowledge, understanding and manual skills (Welch, 2001).
It is evident from the discussion above that since Technology Education is about problem solving, the designing and making of the product as well as the process that the learner engages in, teaching of Technology Education differs from the way other learning areas are taught (Pudi, 2007). Technology Education encompasses how learners design and make products by combining designing skills with knowledge, skill and understanding of the world with the idea of improving it (Pudi, 2007; Welch, 2001).
Thus it is essential for teachers to have a good fundamental knowledge of Technology. This knowledge will aid educators in deciding what to assess and how to go about assessing the design process. This is central to capturing the benefits of Technology Education and avoiding its pitfalls (Centre for the Study of Higher Education, n.d.; Middleton, 2005).
2.5. Challenges Technology Education teachers face with regard to assessment