58
cognition process, it rather represents multiple social enactments or behaviours. Typically, it continues through the course of one’s life, as long as literacy is encountered and used in new or novel ways as explained in the next section.
3.4.4 The developmental dimension of the literacy model
The developmental dimension of this model reflects growth in an individual’s ability to effectively engage the linguistics and cognitive and sociocultural dimensions of literacy in a wide range of contexts. For instance, learners develop new abilities in written languages. They begin to tactically move and compose various dimensions of language, with more control and flexibility to expand their horizons (Kuccer, 2009; Moats, 2014).
In summary, the multidimensional model views literacy education as a complex process which should be conceptualised from multiple lenses, in order to fully understand the classroom practices of reading and writing. Such literacy experiences are supposed to be continuous and lifelong so as to allow the literacy progression of the reader and effective instruction in particular school events (Kuccer & Silva, 2013).
59
Verbeek, 2010). In the 1990’s, the great debate on reading theories was: should the teachers use the phonic based (Bottom–up) approaches or the whole language (Top–down) approaches to teach reading at the elementary level?
Table 3.1 presents some of the ways in which the two approaches to reading have been described by Flanagan (1995).
Table 3.1: A comparison of the phonics based and whole language approaches to reading Phonics based approaches Whole language approaches
Reading is a process that progresses from the parts to the whole (bottom-up). Learners first learn the individual letters, then letter characteristics; followed by other letter units representing sounds; then single words; then phrases and sentences; and finally the meaning of the text.
Reading is a process that progresses from the whole to the parts (top-down). It assumes the learners will have an understanding of the written language and how it functions. This understanding enables the reader to make sense of the written word.
Reading is collaboration of individual skills. Reading is inclusive. All skills are implemented simultaneously to make sense of the written text Reading is text driven. The page brings more
information to the reader, than the reader brings to the written page.
Reading is comprehension driven. The reader brings existent knowledge to the text. He or she predicts and questions the text.
The reader must first master the mechanical and technical aspects of written language, before reading comprehension is addressed.
Meaning is most important and is the foundation of reading.
Once the learners have mastered the technical and
mechanical skills, they can read. People continue to learn how to read throughout their lives. There is no end.
Reading aloud is essential for the beginning reader. Silent reading is essential for meditation and conceptualisation.
Source: Flanagan (1995, p. 12)
3.5.1 The phonic based approach to reading
The phonic based approach (Bottom–up ) in learning to read essentially argues that literacy is all about translating graphic symbols into speech, with the assumption that meaning will follow (Verbeek, 2010). This is the most commonly used method at the foundation level of schooling and comprises methodologies where the reader progresses from simple sounds of letters to the whole text (Jourbert, Bester, & Meyer, 2008). This approach usually is decontextualized and purposed to teach young readers that letter combinations represent speech sounds heard in words. The reading skills are developed step by step, from letter to word recognition, understanding of words, sentences and lastly, the understanding of the whole text. This indicates that learners are expected to reach a certain level of technical and mechanical skills before they are exposed to authentic books or higher levels of reading. For instance, learners are required to mechanically recite the letters of the alphabet before they can start reading the words and then sentences (Flanagan, 1995).
60
According to Tompkins (2013), use of basal readers enriches use of the phonics methods. A basal reader is a reading programme that offers a compilation of readymade lesson plans, workbook assignments, paperback books, and grade-level textbooks to help learners decode words (Ibid). In the South Africa context, teachers should use basal readers is to teach grammar, phonics, spelling, phonemic awareness, and numerous reading strategies and skills (Taylor et al, 2013). Everything is already mapped out for the teacher, which is valuable for teachers with limited pedagogical knowledge. Although a basal reader is great for strengthening reading skills, word identification, and decoding skills, it lacks differentiation primarily because everything included in the curriculum package is geared toward one reading level (Tompkins, 2013). Although the phonics approach encourages children to read each word separately in a sentence, Flanagan affirms that this approach hinders comprehension since differences exist between the reading of individual words and the reading of text.
Pretorius et al., (2016) stress the importance of phonics approach to learners’ literacy development, but argue that it should not be the only focus of literacy teaching at the elementary level. According to International Reading Association (2007), the teaching of phonics skills from the beginning, is an important foundation to phonological awareness, decoding, word recognition and literal comprehension. However, other experts suggest that phonics approaches focus on cognitive philosophy and emphasis is more on the individual, rather than the social practices (Luke, 1995). This means that the phonics approach to reading alone is not capable of instilling self-imagination, innovation, dynamism and other dispositions that are highly valued in the 21st century education system globally (International Reading Association, 2007).
3.5.2 The whole language approach to reading
The second theory is the whole language approach, which assumes that literacy is fundamentally a meaning-making activity, an approach which emphasises treating phonics as only one kind of cue used in the process of reading and writing at the elementary level (Goodman & Goodman, 2009). This approach is often described as ‘top-down’, because the teacher first introduces a topic and engages children in discussion, then guides them to make sentences. For instance, a teacher may write a sentence on a strip of card, then cuts the strip into single words. Then, with the children, she breaks the words into their letter-sound units.
61
This process is an example of an activity from the ‘language experience’ method, which is a variation of the ‘Top-down’ approach (Hill & Khuboni, 2013).
According to Perez and Nordlander (2004), the whole language approach is grounded in the idea that children acquire the ability to read and write as naturally as they learn to walk and talk. In addition, literacy acquisition occurs when children are provided with numerous learning situations in which they are actively engaged in a reliable, meaningful communication that has a connection with their lives. This means that literacy events should be contextualised and meaning-laden. For example, teachers should create learning opportunities or environments from the child’s home language and personal experience (Verbeek, 2010). It is because of such conditions that Jourbert et al. (2008), describe the whole language approach as a method which integrates all areas of reading. However, the balanced or integrated approach is an attempt to bring together the two perspectives by arguing that reading proceeds from both the smallest units of language to meaning and from meaning to smaller units (Verbeek, 2010).
Generally, the phonic based approaches use sounds of the word to help children decode text, whilst the whole language approaches encourage children to guess words from the meaning of the text to help comprehension. Research evidence suggests that the phonics skills and the whole language methods are equally important in learning how to read (Department of Education, 2002; Flanagan, 1995; Jourbert et al., 2008; Verbeek, 2010). This is because some children respond well to the phonic based approaches, while others progress better with the whole language methods. This means that children benefit even more from the amalgamation of these two approaches – the ‘balanced’ approach. Thus, FP teachers should be able to reconcile the two approaches in their classroom context, learning to balance the approaches for the benefit of the mixed abilities classrooms in the South Africa context (Verbeek, 2013).
The next section gives an overview of the balanced approaches to reading.
3.5.3 Balanced approaches to reading
According to the socio-cultural perspectives, use of multiple approaches for literacy instruction at the elementary level is crucial because children learn differently in relation to their contexts and experiences (Perez & Nordlander, 2004). This means that one single approach such as phonics based approach or whole language methods may not meet the needs of diverse learners in a classroom. A balanced approach to reading allows learners to explore and form their own
62
understanding within the text. In addition, phonics, spelling, writing, reading, and oral communication are all included as part of a balanced approaches. Learners are encouraged to read diverse books and write, giving phonics the contextual attention it deserves for a successful and meaningful reading. Thus the balanced approaches are research grounded and comprehensively view literacy as inclusive without putting emphasis on one aspect of literacy at the expense of another (National Reading Panel, 2005). For example, a teacher using balanced approaches will value the instruction of both reading and writing, use of basal readers and also give learners writing tasks to strengthen their literacy skills.This allows diversity and flexibility in teaching and reading becomes a cognitive-linguistic activity which comprises several other skills such decoding, writing and comprehension (Pretorius et al., 2016).
Balanced approaches to reading also encourage recreational reading which improves autonomous learning, creativity, intelligence, comprehension, communicative competence, literacy development, motivation and attitudes towards language learning (Verbeek, 2010).
However, recent research indicates that reading for enjoyment has declined significantly in the last years in South African context (Phindane, 2014). Several reading instructional intervention by the South African DBE at the national and provincial level have been implemented and incorporate ideologies of teaching reading from International Reading Association (IRA) and National Reading Panel (NRP). For instance, the Reading Association of South Africa (RASA) established in Cape Town in 2004 is a support and motivation from IRA, to which it is affiliated. Provincial branches of RASA were formed to support and promote effective reading approaches and suitable for various contexts (Department of Basic Education, 2013a, 2015).