SFPs have been shown to make an important contribution to the daily dietary intake and academic success of learners (Lukindo, 2018). In addition, it improves school enrollment and addresses nutritional status (Zenebe et al., 2018; Taylor & Ogbogu, 2013), as well as providing a platform for implementing public health and nutrition interventions such as de-worming campaigns, Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) education, hand- washing, micronutrient supplementation and psycho-social support (Leo 2010). Figure 2.4 summarizes how SFPs can impact on educational and nutritional outcomes.
A study conducted in numerous Sub-Saharan countries, documented that SFPs had a positive impact on school enrollment, especially for girls (Gelli, 2015), as was confirmed by earlier studies (Gelli et al., 2007). A study conducted by Zenebe et al., (2018), also showed that in addition to improving enrollment, SFPs also improved school attendance and reduced the drop-out rates of beneficiaries (0.9%) compared to non-beneficiaries (1.7%) among learners in Southern Ethiopia.
50 Figure 2.4: School Feeding Benefits
Source: Aldelman et al., (2008)
There is convincing evidence regarding the benefits of SFPs on learning outcomes in developing countries (Jomaa et al., 2011; Du et al., 2004), although less evidence is available regarding the benefits obtained in developed countries (Belot & James, 2011). Although SFPs cannot reverse the outcome of earlier malnutrition, the provision of school meals can have a significant impact on the nutritional status of learners (Ogbole 2017; Nkhoma et al., 2013). These benefits are especially tangible if the food is fortified with micronutrients (Fiorentino et al., 2013). A systematic review of 18 studies conducted in Kenya, Jamaica, India, China and Indonesia, had difficulty in determining the clinical significance of conducting anthropometric measurements on children participating in SFPs as a measure of success, mainly due to a lack of available standards for weight and height gain in school aged children (Jomaa et. al., 2011; Kristjansson et. al., 2006).
A study conducted in Ghana was also not able to demonstrate an improvement in nutritional status or a significant difference in nutritional status between participants and non-participants of SFPs (Danquah et. al., 2012).
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An overall adequate diet, and not only participation in a SFP, should ensure that all nutrient requirements are met in order to protect the current and future health of learners (Falade et al., 2012), as malnourished children have a diminished capacity to learn (Grantham-McGregor &
Onley, 2016; Black, 2013). The latter is related to hungry children becoming easily distracted and having difficulty of concentrating in class (Gelli, 2010). In addition, compromised education accomplishments have been described as the most detrimental factor responsible for poverty (Payandeh et al., 2013). Results from a study conducted in Jamaica, found that SFPs contributed to improved cognitive function among undernourished children when compared to those who are well nourished, as no effect on cognitive function was noted in the latter group. Undernourished children also performed better academically after they received breakfast (P < 0.01), whereas a change in score could not be demonstrated among adequately nourished children (Grantham- McGregor et al., 1998). In addition, the negative effect of hunger on learners and their behaviour is well researched (Ayogu et al., 2018). Hunger is a proven barrier to basic education (Mwambene et al., 2013). A study conducted by Kristjansoon (2009), demonstrated that learners who often go to school hungry, are not well behaved in class. In addition to the potential for improving nutritional status, school meals also promote social interaction between learners and teachers, and serve as a practical learning opportunity regarding the role of food and social interactions which are important for children’s emotional development (Cervato-Mancuso et al., 2013). The latter authors also state that as children develop and learn through meals, it can also positively influence and encourage other family members at home to eat healthily.
Another benefit of SFPs that has been well researched, is school enrolment. Several studies have yielded convincing evidence regarding the positive impact of SFPs on school enrolment (Yendaw
& Dayour, 2015), school attendance and a reduction in dropout (Akanbi & Alayande, 2011; Bundy et al., 2009; Gelli et al., 2007).
SFPs target vulnerable learners including those from very poor backgrounds, girls and children affected by HIV (Rassas et al., 2018). In addition, Vinueza et al., (2016), indicated that school gardens are useful educational tools as they can be used to influence the eating habits and practices of students. Furthermore, Soares et al., (2016) explored the use of food produced by family farms on school menus of the SFP in southern Brazil and established that family farms can be viewed as
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a source of healthy foods in school meals. The authors further explained that family farms can help with the provision of fresh food to SFPs at limited transport costs, as the farms are often located in relative close proximity to the school. In addition, family farms help with the provision of natural and organic foods which promote good health (Soares et al., 2016). This has improved the quality of school meals, particularly the availability of fruits and vegetables increased (Sidaner, Balaban & Burlandy, 2012). As the prevalence OW and OB has been on the rise, it has been established that schools can help to reverse this situation through SFPs by providing healthy food to learners (WHO, 2013; WHO 2004). In addition, the produce from family farms can be used to bring about change in learner eating habits through SFPs (Soares et al., 2016).
The objective of SFPs is not only to achieve educational goals, but to serve as a source of employment for local farmers and cooks (Grantham-McGrego et al., 2005). Studies have shown that local farmers and other local businesses often benefit by selling food commodities to the government for use in SFPs (Yunusa et al., 2012; Garram Children’s School, 2010). Despite all the documented benefits of SFPs, its sustainability has been questioned (Oostindjer et al., 2017).