The eThekwinin Municipal Area (EMA), located in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, is under the local government authority of the eThekwini Municipality and extends over an estimated area of 229 193ha (Davids et al., 2016). Climatic conditions of the EMA have been described as subtropical to temperate at higher elevations, and characterised with high rainfall and temperature seasonality, and lower mean temperatures (Ground et al., 2016). At lower elevations, the EMA is described as subtropical to tropical, and characterised with lower rainfall and temperature seasonality, and higher mean temperatures (Ground et al., 2016). This combination of climatic conditions has resulted in a region that supports tropical, sub-tropical and temperate mist-belt species (Ground et al., 2016). Located within the EMA is the city of Durban which is considered as the third largest metropolitan areas in South Africa with an estimated size of 2300 km2 and a population of over 3 million residents (Boon et al., 2016).
The city is located within the MPA Region, which represents one of 35 global biodiversity hotspots (Boon et al., 2016). Among the threats to the city and EMA’s environments are pollution, habitat destruction and alien invasive species (Davids et al., 2016).
59 Figure 4.1. Location of study areas within eThekwini, KwaZulu-Natal (Author, 2017).
In comparison to other cities in the country, Durban has the highest proportion of residents living in poverty, and recorded an income inequality Gini Coefficient of 0.63 in the year 2012 (Boon et al., 2016). This ranking in the upper quantile indicates high levels of inequality. It has also been observed that city’s legacy of apartheid has resulted in the most marginalised citizens residing in the municipality’s fringe, which excludes these communities from economic and employment opportunities (Cartwright et al., 2013; Roberts and O’Donoghue, 2013). In relation to landscape, the larger proportion of Durban is comprised of rural and peri-urban land use characteristics and settlements (Boon et al., 2016). These rural and peri-urban areas make up two-thirds of the metropolitan area, and it is within these areas that communities rely on ecosystem services to meet their basic needs (Davids et al., 2016; Roberts and O’Donoghue, 2013). It can be observed that it is these areas which are more at risk to the effects of climate change related concerns (Roberst and O’Donoghue, 2013).
60 In response to the threats on the natural environment, the city has made efforts such as the Durban Metropolitan Open Space System (D’MOSS) which was established to protect the city’s globally significant biodiversity and ensure the sustainability of the ecosystem service provision (Roberts et al., 2012). With specific reference to climate change-related threats, the city of Durban initiated the Municipal Climate Change Protection Programme (MCPP) in 2004 to address climate change related threats to its natural environment and affected development sectors (Cartwright et al., 2013; Roberts et al., 2012). The MCPP consists of several components namely; municipal adaptation, community-based adaptation, and urban management interventions to target climate change challenges (Roberts et al., 2012).
4.2.1. Buffelsdraai Landfill Site Community Reforestation Programme
The BLSCRP is considered one of the first of many reforestation projects anticipated by the eThekwini municipality which sought to establish and restore the indigenous forest in the buffer zone of the eThekwini municipality’s Buffelsdraai Regional Landfill Site (Diga et al., 2016; Douwes et al., 2015). The main aim of the project is to offset the related carbon emissions of hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup® (Douwes et al., 2015). The project is being carried out within the municipal owned buffer zone which is between the landfill site and adjacent communities (Greater Capital Report, 2011). The project was established in 2008 by the eThekwini municipality’s Environmental Planning and Climate Protection Department (EPCPD) with WCT and DSW as key partners (Douwes et al., 2015). Key sources of funding for the project include the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) and the South African national government through its Green Fund (Douwes et al., 2015). In 2014, the BLSCRP received a Gold Standard by the Climate Community and Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA) (Douwes et al., 2015). The CCBA standards require forestry carbon projects, in the form of restoration, afforestation or reforestation, to ensure biodiversity benefits, and emphasise the importance of stakeholder consultation in such projects (Harvey et al., 2010).
61 Figure 4.2. Location of Buffelsdraai community in Durban, eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal (Author, 2017).
62 The estimated size of the buffer zone is 787ha with the active landfill zone occupying 100ha (Greater Capital Report, 2011). The tree seedlings are planted within the buffer zone which is separated into mitigation blocks where the reforestation occurs. In terms of ecological benefits, the restored forests are predicted to enhance biodiversity refugees and water quality, river flow regulation, flood mitigation, sediment control, and improve aesthetic appeal (Douwes et al., 2015). Furthermore, it was envisaged that the project would also enhance local community capacity and biodiversity adaptation to climate change-related concerns (Douwes et al., 2015).
Local community members collect indigenous tree seeds which are grown in community household gardens, which are later collected and introduced to the buffer zone surrounding the landfill site (Douwes et al., 2015). The WCT is the assigned implementing agent of operations related to the tree growing and planting under its ITFL model (Greater Capital Report, 2011).
Within this model, local community members, known as ‘Tree-preneurs’, grow indigenous tree seedlings in their respective household nurseries and once the trees have grown to a suitable height, community members are able to trade these trees for credit notes (Douwes et al., 2015).
These credit notes are redeemable at ‘tree stores’ which have a prearrangement with WCT, and may be used to purchase groceries and building materials, while other households have been able to use incentives in assisting to pay for school fees and driving lessons (Douwes et al., 2015).
The tree-preneurs are members of local communities which include Buffelsdraai, Osindisweni and KwaMashu, with the majority of individuals involved in the project originating from the two former communities (Douwes et al., 2015). Community members are recruited by local facilitators within each respective community, and are trained in relation to the collection of seedlings and removal of alien invasive species (Douwes et al., 2015). As of 2015 the project has created an estimated 448 jobs, (43 full-time, 16 part-time, 389 temporary), in relation to tree planting and site preparation (for example, the removal of sugarcane and alien invasive plants), maintenance (for example, grass cutting and controlling alien invasive plants, and fire management) (Douwes et al., 2015).
Part of the project’s social outreach is to increase local community capacity by providing understanding of ecosystem benefits, and building awareness of natural ecosystems (Douwes et al., 2015). Plans have been made to restore the ruins of former farmhouse located within the premises of the Buffelsdraai Landfill Site and establish this building as a Reforestation Hub which will become the administrative centre for the reforestation programme (Douwes et al.,
63 2015). The Reforestation Hub will also serve as a tool to promote environmental education and stewardship to enhance local climate change adaptation capacity, and innovative research (Douwes et al., 2015).
Approximately 90% of project beneficiaries from the three communities lived below South Africa’ poverty line (Greater Capital Report, 2011). However, it should be noted that poverty indicators within South Africa have been criticised for not adequately representing local contexts (Munien, 2014). More specifically, current indicators are based on upper and lower limits which reflect averages rather than the majority. The Buffelsdraai community was noted to be and identified as one of the community with the lowest levels of formal education, income per household and food security, in comparison to Osindisweni and KwaMashu (Greater Capital Report, 2011). The realisation of the socio-economic context within these communities, the Reforestation project seeks to target the most vulnerable groups within the communities (Greater Capital Report, 2011).