2.7. INDICATORS OF SUCCESSFUL MENTORSHP OF WOMEN
2.7.2. Career advancement
Lyness and Thompson (2000), cited in Giscombe (2007:550), observe that successful mentorships are more strongly associated with career advancement. Organisations provide mentorship programs that target groups such as women, who are under-represented in leadership positions (Giscombe, 2007:550). As a result, women are advancing into managerial positions (Giscombe, 2007:549).
Apospori, Nikandrou and Panayotopoulou (2006:515) provide determinants of career advancement related to interpersonal, individual, human capital and family attributes.
Interpersonal determinants refer to the supportive relationship at work, such as mentors and peer networks that facilitate advancement (Haggins & Kram, 2001:268). Kirchmeyer (2002:8)
that are linked with the success of a managerial position. Human capital determinants involve personal education and experience investments that enhance the employee’s value in the labour market. This study focuses on the interpersonal determinants of career advancement since they are associated with successful mentorship (Ismail & Arokiasamy, 2007:142),
According to Ismail and Arokiasamy (2007:142), successful mentorship leads to greater career advancement. Mentorship is often used in organisations as an important strategy for career advancement (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz & Lima, 2004:127).
Ismail and Arokiasamy (2007:142), and Ackah and Heaton (2003:134) describe career advancement as processes that employees undergo toward changes in performance, job position, promotion, increased earnings and a better relationship with management in organisations.
2.7.2.1. Job position
Fuller, Fonderville-Gaoui and Haagdorens (2010:3) and Statistics South Africa (2009:11) reveal that women are continuing to be under-represented in senior management even though they make up nearly half of the workforce. Felden, Davidson, Gale and Davey (2000:115) found that the distribution of women in the construction industry is highly skewed, with almost two thirds working in secretarial or clerical positions in the United Kingdom. Felden et al. (2000:115) revealed that the contribution of females in the workplace is not as competent as that of males because their skills are not used in areas where they could make an important difference to the production levels of the industry.
Tsukudu (1996), cited in Mathur-Helm (2005:61), suggests that white men are still a privileged group in top management organisations in South Africa; they make major decisions and will continue to maintain their privileged positions by barring opportunities to women and black people. Catalyst (2011:online) revealed the following involvement of women in senior management positions in government in South Africa:
15.8% of female directors,
21.6% female executive managers,
5.3% of women chairpersons, and
4.4% of women CEOs and MDs women.
From this it is evident that women are still under-represented at senior level in the work place, and that the advancement of women into managerial positions is happening slowly.
2.7.2.2. Promotion on the job
In the study by Allen et al. (2004:130), promotions were examined by asking the participants the number of promotions received during their working period. Ackah and Heaton (2003:134) examined the different paths of women and men in human resource management careers. The findings revealed a difference because men usually receive promotions within their organisations, while women often go and seek career advancement in other organisations (Ackah & Heaton, 2003:134). The findings also revealed that women earn less than their male counterparts for similar positions (Ackah & Heaton, 2003:134). However, Allen et al. (2004:130) revealed that female mentees receive more promotions than their non-mentored counterparts.
2.7.2.3. Performance
High performance results from acquired skills and competencies (Armstrong, 2009:7).
Behaviour originates from the performer displaying suitable behaviour, especially discretionary behaviour. It further originates from the effective use of the required knowledge as well as changing performance from thought into action (Armstrong, 2009:7). Behaviour is not a tool that is applied for results but it is also the outcome in its own right (Armstrong, 2009:7). Mental and physical efforts are the tools which are used for tasks and can be judged separately from results (Armstrong, 2009:7). Therefore, when managing performance it is important for both input (behaviour) and output (results) to be considered (Armstrong, 2009:7). Employees are normally judged and rewarded or punished, based on the behaviour they display (Rothwell et al., 2000:2). Companies usually reward employees who appear to work long hours or are always busy with promotions, even though others who might not display this behaviour really produce more with higher-quality results (Rothwell et al., 2000:1). Rothwell et al. (2000:1) conclude that in many cases the value is on behaviours and outward appearance that people show rather than on the results they produce.
Lyness and Heilman (2006:779) measured the performance of female and male managers by asking participants to rate their performance from one (low) to three (high). The items that were rated were operating results; customer effectiveness; personal, business and technical proficiency; execution skills; leadership; professional standards; professional relationships;
global effectiveness; leadership and social responsibility (Lyness & Heilman, 2006:779). The findings showed that the performance evaluations of managers were affected by gender bias (Lyness & Heilman, 2006:782). This means that the performance rating of female managers was rated in accordance to stricter standards for promotion considerations (Lyness & Heilman, 2006:777).
2.7.2.4. Earnings
Dessler (2011:463) explains that forms of increased earnings include merit pay, bonus and cash awards. Allen et al. (2004:127) conducted an analysis on career benefits associated with mentoring mentees. Allen et al. (2004:130) examined the percentage change in the salary during a specified time period as opposed to current income in order to determine the salary growth of an individual. Allen et al. (2004:130) measured the compensation of individuals by asking the participants to indicate their total annual salaries including all forms of compensation.
It was concluded that most of the mentored employees were advancing more rapidly in their careers than their non-mentored counterparts (Allen et al., 2004:130).