Conclusions
Rapidly advancing technology, telecommunications and digital media are leading to a swift evolution of cultural practices throughout the world. These digital media, better transport and growing technology capabilities are making it easier to study and analyse remote communities such as the Bushmen and other indigenous cultures. Furthermore, and similarly, increased technology is also allowing us more ways to contest popular mediated representations of these minority cultures.
This research has used two communities of similar Bushman ethnic background in order to perform a comparative analysis. This argument has been formulated in such a way that globalisation and its effects on certain cultures can be determined. Additionally, this dissertation has contextualised the effects of globalisation in remotely situated communities.
Most globalisation theorists analyse the effects of globalisation in general terms. Using two similar communities, as part of this comparative analysis, has allowed a focus on the degree of that the effects globalisation is having in two specific contexts. The recurring themes of representation, identity, stereotypes and cultural shifts have formed the different bases of analysis. On one hand, there is an investigation into the Bushmen and how they have adapted to living in modern society. Popular media representations frame the Bushmen as a culture struggling to exist in a rapidly technologically developing world. They are depicted as being lost and unable to cope within modern society. However, on the other hand, after closer scrutiny, they have merely adapted, culturally and otherwise, to existence in their particular contexts.
One striking characteristic that is identified through this research is how an increased media proliferation has definite effects on identity. It is clear that the media’s representation of Bushmen has infiltrated the ≠Khomani community’s identity and has become part and parcel of their self-representation. It is also testament to the “entrenched and enduring patterns of worldwide interconnectedness” (Held & McGrew 2000: 235). Fragmented identities that are commonly associated with highly complex modern societies are also evident in the ≠Khomani trackers. This can be further observed in their ability to adapt in order to coincide with various visitors’ spheres of reference; such as changing their clothes, conversation topics etc. This indicates an altering frame of “cultural meaning and the intensification of global consciousness” (Barker 1999: 36).
Comparatively, the !Xoo have had less exposure to the media, foreigners and academics.
Their identity construction takes place within their community and their understanding of their own culture is developed through interactions with community members. There is no obvious element of representing themselves in any particular way. Additionally, they display a less fragmented sense of identity. In a sense, the !Xoo have a stronger cultural identity, because the media has had less of an influence on their lives.
Tracking was used as a lens into a culture known for being hunter-gatherers. Hence, popular stereotypes and representations of Bushmen in general were used as points of entry into the topic of culture in a constant state of flux. The concept of cultural shifts was the basis for an interrogation of how tracking has changed; from the more traditional aspects used in hunting to its adaptation in a twenty first century context.
The ≠Khomani’s increase interaction with tourists, foreigners and media practitioners, which can be defined as “the intensification of world-wide social relations” (Giddens 1990: 64), has led to tracking taking on a form of entertainment. Their representation of tracking therefore coincides with this guise of a traditional cultural practice, which is not greatly evolved in comparison to tracking used by the ≠Khomani’s ancestors. Tracking has become a means for the ≠Khomani to earn a living in modern society, as well as providing a lure for international tourists wanting to have a traditional Bushman experience. The ≠Khomani live just off a main road connected to Uppington53 and their frequency of visitors is due to their accessibility.
Tracking’s evolution is an illustration of “the growing interconnectedness of different parts of the world, which gives rise to complex forms of interaction and interdependency” (Rantanen 2005: 149).
The !Xoo’s use of tracking has too evolved, however, its trajectory is different to the
≠Khomani’s. This is largely due to their contextual differences and the fact that the !Xoo live in a highly inaccessible region. The !Xoo do not use tracking for tourism or sell their cultural identity, because they get fewer visitors and foreigners. They do contract their tracking services to SBB which hosts big game hunters, however. While in this sense a service that is sold, they see it as a job quite different to tracking by themselves for themselves (and us, the researchers). In this latter sense, tracking is practice aimed at recovery of a sense of place, space, culture and time. The contextual evolution of tracking has led to its continuing use as a sense-making device in their environment. Additionally, tracking is still used in more traditional ways for hunting and tracking, though considerably less frequently.
Literacy and its necessity in modern society is contested in remote communities. The concept of cultural negotiations and shifts also speaks to how particular cultural practices have shifted in order to fill particular roles in society. Instead of reading traditional texts, the ≠Khomani and !Xoo communities use tracking to make sense and define meaning in their context. In cities and modern society, knowledge and one’s ability to exist successfully are attributed to what a person knows (or has read) and how successfully they can make sense of their environment. In less developed areas, the ≠Khomani and !Xoo’s ability to make sense of their environment (through tracking) largely defines how successfully they exist in their context.
Therefore, there are certain parallels which are drawn between literacy and tracking.
Modern society is discerned by an adherence to expectations, perpetuated stereotypes and rapid technological development. Though these traits it is interesting to analyse and attempt to understand how it effects different sects of society, none more so that those that exist in remote areas. What the future holds for a unique culture like the Bushman is an interesting concept. However, what is clear is that a culture can adapt, be sustained and exist in modern society, that is, given they have a motivation to do so.