2.2 Delivery
2.2.4 Computers
There are many styles of alternative teaching methods, both formal and informal. They may embrace individual or group work (small or large). Some methods may utilize computers and those methods will be discussed in more detail here. Bourne and Brodersen (1995, p.239) envisage that engineering education will become “electronically-based”, with students being able to learn anywhere at anytime, learning in “cooperative work groups”, using multi-media
“materials located anywhere in the world’s information infrastructure”.
2.2.4.1 Computers in teaching and learning
Computers have now become a vital component of any higher education institution. They control all areas and functions within these organisations and are now more available to students for a wider variety of applications than when first introduced. However, when it comes to teaching with computers, it must be remembered that they are tools to assist lecturers in
coursework and not a replacement for lectures. Mehl and Sinclair (1993, p.9) point out that their early users of the computer-assisted instruction (CAI) had to show the proportions of the syllabus covered by other teaching instruction styles besides computers, to ensure a balance.
Computers are now used quite extensively in education to enhance the teaching and learning experience. They offer added functionality in that they add a dynamic visual aspect to the learning. They are fairly cost effective and available today in moderately large numbers to students in most education institutions. Scott and O’Connell (1999, p.2), in relation to thermodynamics, state that “among the publications and web sites of the several NSF
Engineering Coalitions, there are only a few computer-oriented materials and no experiments”
27 and that whilst there are some thermodynamic “learning aids”, they are typically “textbook or computer descriptions”.
This style of presentation lends itself to a more flexible working environment where students can work at their own pace (Race, 1999, p.66) (within limits of time constraints). They can learn by doing, making mistakes along the way (Race, 1999, p.65), seeing their errors and being able to correct them, thus providing immediate feedback. Feedback is suggested by Hattie (1992, p.4, as sited in Atherton, 2010b) as “the most powerful single moderator that enhances achievement”. Brown, Race and Smith (1995, pp.30-31) indicate that it should be given timeously and that with computers it can be immediate. Students can “however become sidetracked by all sorts of fascinating (or inappropriate!) things” (Race, 1999, p.64).
2.2.4.2 Introduction of computers into South African higher education
Computers were first introduced into the South African education system when the PLATO learning package was utilized at the University of the Western Cape (UWC) in 1980 (Mehl &
Sincliar, 1993, p.4). The underlying reason behind this was for “a less rigid, less lecture- dominated, more learner-centred teaching-learning arrangement” (Mehl & Sincliar, 1993, p.5).
Also, “lecturers became keenly aware of, for example, what it meant to set educational objectives ...and how important formative feedback was in facilitating the learning process”
(Mehl & Sincliar, 1993, p.7). Twenty seven years later those ideas are firmly entrenched in the new SAQA OBE system, introduced in Chapter 1.2. One of the fundamental tenets of OBE is that outcomes are set to meet their objectives in a learner-centred environment, in which formative feedback is part of the system (South African Qualifications Authority, 2001, p.26).
Mehl and Sinclair (1993, p.8) discovered some important points when setting up computer laboratories at UWC, with a critical minimum of 15 to 18 terminals. Beyond a maximum of about 30 terminals control problems became an issue. Another lesson learned was that it was better to have two students per terminal than the initial three to four students.
In the 27 years that computers have been in the education arena the price of stand alone desk- top personal computers has changed little. However, their power and speed has grown
tremendously. Also, users no longer need to recall many lines of very specifically syntaxed code to interact with them. Added to that is the ease with which multiple computers can be networked
28 so users can communicate around the globe almost instantaneously. This, however, has lead to new problems, some of which were encountered during the study and although not specifically part of the scope of this project, are discussed in Chapter 4.
2.2.4.3 Online and offline learning
Oke (2004, p.897) suggests that there is a “need for a more intense introduction of spreadsheets into the engineering education curriculum”. The availability and power of modern computers means they have a role to play in education. There has been much research recently into the use of computers, often in the form of spreadsheet applications, which augment or replace the use of lecturing as the only or main means of information exchange. This method is often used in “on- line instructions and distance-learning programmes” (Oke, 2004, p.893). However, various other computer related teaching methods are currently being used such as online learning using the Internet, WebCT and others. Offline learning methods are also used, such as programming and spreadsheets.
One widely used method of teaching associated with the Internet is Web-based or distance learning, whereby there are very few if any contact periods. Students can be far away from the provider, even overseas, and still participate in the subject whilst pursuing a normal full-time job. This form of learning is flexible in that students’ “study times can be varied to suit their individual requirements” (Race, 1999). Ngo & Lai (2003, pp.75-76) state that “little efforts have been devoted to develop a comprehensive Web-based courseware for Thermodynamics so far”, and it was their job to do so.
“WebCT (Web Course Tools) is used to author and manage online subjects. It can be used for the purpose of distance or blended (i.e. online and face-to-face) teaching and learning.” (Frank, 2006, p.16). Some lectures are replaced with a form of online classroom where students can actively participate in activities set up on an interactive WebCT page. These may include quizzes that are graded, chat rooms for both students and lecturers, notice boards and so on. It reduces the contact time between lecturer and student, forcing students to go and do research in their own time.
Another form of networked learning is e-learning. One example of this is “a game-like realistic simulation in which students had to play the role of a junior consultant” (Martens, Gulikers, &
29 Bastiaens, 2004, p.368) using an “authentic programme implemented in an electronic learning environment with a lot of multimedia” (Martens et al., 2004, p.371).
Offline learning is also extensively used, where here the term “offline” is used loosely to mean a non-Web-based type of learning experience. Both of the examples discussed below,
programming and spreadsheets, could be, and sometimes are, associated with networked systems and the Internet since they can be used interactively with learning material on Websites (Oke, 2004, p.893).
Quite a number of engineering programmes include a subject into which a software program, such as Fortran, Basic or even C++, is introduced. Students learn to program in one of those languages, whilst at the same time learning to solve engineering type problems. These problems could be in any of the programme subjects such as strength of materials, heat transfer, electrical circuits and so on.
For engineering purposes, spreadsheets are widely used, especially where repeated or iterative calculations are required. An added advantage is that, once the equations have been set up using the powerful mathematical functions built into the spreadsheet programme, alternative solutions are quickly available by simply changing the input variables. Another aspect associated with spreadsheets is with their graphical abilities to quickly and easily produce animated graphs that change with variable inputs. They are discussed further in the next section.
2.2.4.4 Spreadsheets and learning
Spreadsheets have been around since 1979 (Brown & Gould, 1987, p.258; Oke, 2004, p.894)) and initially utilized in the financial arena. They are a “two-dimensional matrix of cells displayed on a computer screen” (Brown & Gould, 1987, p.258). They can only accept two formats in their cells, label (alpha numeric characters in strings) or values (numeric data and associated symbols, including formulas). “Spreadsheet languages differ from most other commonly used programming languages in that they provide a declarative approach to programming, characterized by a dependence-driven, direct-manipulation working model”
(Rothermel et al., 2000, p.230).
Today spreadsheet programs are readily available at moderate cost. Quick to learn as they are
30 mostly menu driven, spreadsheet programs can reduce the tedious process of repeated
calculations and, once programmed correctly, are accurate and precise. However, it has been estimated that between 20% and 40% of spreadsheets contain user-generated errors (Brown &
Gould, 1987, p.259), of which a large proportion often involve cell referencing in formulas.
Other research has confirmed that spreadsheets were found to contain errors between 20,8% and 60,8% of the time, and 55,8% of errors are missed when inspecting spreadsheets (Rothermel et al., 2000, p.230). Lack of pre-planning preparation, by designing the layout on paper
beforehand, can increase the problems of errors in spreadsheet design, even with experienced spreadsheet designers. In Oke (2004, p.894) “Rajalingham [45] argues that the problem of spreadsheet errors has adverse real-life consequences on engineering education”.
Oke (2004, p.893) describes spreadsheets as providing “a unique perspective on the relationship between the component of an equation-an understanding that is essential in engineering
analysis”. Quick to program, they can show the ‘what if’ solution to sample data, enhanced by the visual output of graphs. Bissell (as cited in Oke 2004, p.897) also pointed out that errors in graph plotting are reduced when compared to hand drawn methods. Many examples of
spreadsheets utilized in various engineering fields to teach both mathematical and engineering principles abound, including “Computer animation” (Doak et al. (2000), as cited in Oke (2004, p.895)). Many of the studies utilizing spreadsheets have focused on heat transfer (Lawson, 2004, pp.984-990; Jordan, 2004, pp. 991-998; Schumack, 2004, pp.975-983, Hale and Grant (as cited in Oke, 2004, p.895)), which are ideally suited to this form of computational analysis.
Other areas include design optimisation and analysis algorithms (Tai (1999), in Oke, 2004, p.896) and fluid dynamics (Schumack, 2004, p.981). In an electrical engineering application :
Stanton et al. [12] used the power of PC-based spreadsheet programs to aid students’ understanding and cognitive development...The work demonstrated how students could focus on gaining a conceptual understanding of signal and linear system analysis while de-emphasising the rigours of developing a user interface (as cited in Oke, 2004, p.895).
However, very few if any spreadsheet applications appear to concentrate specifically on the fundamentals of Thermodynamics, introduced later in 2.3.1.
Another use of spreadsheets has been in the generation of random multiple-choice quizzes to
“engineering students in non-supervised testing environments (NTSE)” (Maurice & Day, 2004,
31 p.958). These are mostly performed online, partly in an effort to reduce cheating by students, but also to reduce marking errors with large numbers of students. Maurice and Day (2004, p.964) indicate that their NTSE test method is more suitable for mathematical type questions than text-based questions.