CHAPTER 4 THE ROLE OF TOURISM DEVELOPMENT AND OF
4.3. HRD AND TOURISM DEVELOPMENT
4.3.1. The Concept of Human Capital Theory
The positive relationship between human capital investment and economic growth is best explained using the concepts of human capital theory. In this regard, Schultz (1981) and Becker (1964) have made useful contributions in recognizing the role of human capital in the process of economic development and regard it as a rational investment in people, which links present decision-making to future returns. According to Becker (1975), individuals, firms or society have forgone current consumption by investing in education and training in order to attain future earnings. This situation can be termed as an application of the opportunity cost concept (Bowman, 1987), and is an investment, as current income is substituted for increased earning potential in the future (Nicholson,
1987).
Following the work of Schultz (1961, 1963) and Becker (1962, 1975), various authors, such as McConnell and Brue (1995), Kaufman (1994) and Ehrenberg and Smith (2000) inter alia have discussed human capital theory extensively. Human capital theory focuses on the need to invest in people in order to achieve and sustain competitive advantage. Inefficient use of available human resources will increase labour costs which will result in higher production costs. Therefore, in order to remain competitive in the market, it is imperative f a all countries in the world to pay special attention to developing their human resources.
A significant aspect of this theory is that the investment in knowledge, skills and health not only benefits the individual, it also increases the employers' and even a country's human capital resource pool and potential productivity. However, despite the benefit that employers are able to realize from supporting the education of their current and potential employees, they are often reluctant to pay for this training due to the possibility of some employees manipulating the situation purely for free training. Often the responsibility of increasing one's human capital still rests largely with the individual (Ehrenberg and Smith, 2000).
The proponents of human capital theory have solved this controversy by distinguishing between two types of human capital investments - specific and general. The former refers to training applicable to one firm only, while the latter refers to the training applicable to many firms. This requires individuals and corporations to evaluate the benefits and disadvantages of general training and specialized training respectively, based on their individual requirements and goals. Thus employers may be willing to pay for specialized training rather than general training, as the latter is readily transferable to anotiier employer. Conversely, the employee may be willing to pay for general training rather than specific training, as the former is highly transferable, and it is likely that the skills acquired through this training can be applied to many alternative employment situations. "There are important
aspects of specific training that both the employee and employer should consider. Although specific training may be relatively costly and lengthy in comparison to general training, the employer may gain productivity in a very specialized and profitable area of business, and also gain loyalty from the employee. However, employees must consider the degree of specificity of the training. If they are trained in something too specific, such as a unique product or rare service, they may lose their job and have few prospects for alternate employment if the product or service is discontinued. In situations where the employer requires unique skills, and there are no skilled employees available in the region, specific training is essential to ensure productivity" (Becker, 1975, pp. 19-20).
Employers and their organizations need to be involved in, and influence, the education and training of the current and potential future workforce. Apart from actual investment by employers in training, they can be involved in contributing to the formulation of policies, which promote public and private investment in education, and training at all levels, both qualitatively and quantitatively, in order to prepare potential workers for current and future jobs in order to facilitate training and retraining in order to respond to the need for a multi-skilled and flexible workforce.
Harbison and Myers (1964: V) emphasize the role of human resources by saying that "the building of modern nations depends upon the development of people and the organization of human activity.
Capital and natural resources play an important role in economic growth, but none is more important than manpower." Human capital is one important factor affecting development and social progress.
Only people can utilize physical capital and natural resource endowments to create development; non- human resources alone do not generate development (Harbison, 1973 in Todaro, 1992). As Harbison and Myers (1964:13) explain, "countries are underdeveloped because most of their people are underdeveloped, having had no opportunity for expanding their potential capacities in the services of society".
This interaction requires a skilled, knowledgeable, healthy labour force and thus investments in human capital - education and health care. Harbison and Myers (1964) establish that human capital development has a statistically significant correlation with GNP. This fact has been verified for Eritrea by regressing human capital development (measured by both education and health expenditures) on GDP*. Highly developed human capital creates greater productivity and efficiency. Education enhances the ability of people to use their natural skills and ingenuity. Investment in education creates positive externalities. It is expected that increased education raises the average quality of labour, which in turn increases employability and thus plays a significant role in the growth of national income. Similarly health care is a necessary service to maintain people's well being and their
• LnGDP= 5.14+ .06161nhuc
t= 12.313 6.805 R2= 0.837 F= 46.306
capability to contribute to society and to development. Thus there is a broad consensus that human capital development reflects a set of closely linked changes including productivity growth, improving health and life expectancy, increasing material prosperity, expanding education and communication and increasing social complexity.
The link between a country's potential for economic growth and higher employment, and its capacity to develop the skills and knowledge of its population, is now recognized by most governments as well as by all major international agencies. The acquisition of greater knowledge and improved skills raises the value of a person's human capital, thereby increasing employability, income potential and productivity, which should lead to higher earnings (Becker, 1992). Although in a broader sense, this link is not a new discovery, some researchers (for example Ashton and Brown, 1999) see die new focus by governments on human resources development (HRD), as a fundamental shift in the conceptualisation of the links between economic growth and the skills and knowledge of the workforce. Eritrea's national HRD strategy, reflects this paradigm shift and shares the global view that in the future, a country's ability to achieve economic growth (and therefore to maintain and increase employment), will depend on its human resources, rather than its natural resources or physical capital (EMOT 1999, Harbison (1973) in Todaro (199). However, it is easier to say that people are the greatest asset, than to put necessary development structures in place to develop the potential of human resources. Thus there is a rationale to investigate empirically, die situation of human resources in the tourism sector of Eritrea.
Todaro (1992), however, discusses die failure of die unrestrained quantitative expansion of educational opportunities in die developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, which provide alternative policy options to third world countries in their attempt to evolve an educational system which will serve die needs and aspirations of all their people more effectively. Similarly, Ashton and Brown (1999) argues "an approach to HRD tiiat focuses only (or largely) on die supply of skills in die labour force is likely to have a limited effect and can even be counter-productive by unjustifiably raising people's hopes for employment (or better employment)". Thus any programmes introduced by HRD must be thoroughly assessed and should also be demand driven. Training should not be for die sake of training or merely for die acquisition of certificates (degrees), but ratiier for attaining predetermined objectives and filling an existing skills deficiency or training gap identified from training needs assessments. If HRD policies are unplanned and not supported by clear developmental objectives and skills requirements, tiiey will simply divert scarce resources from socially productive activities, such as direct employment creation, and tiius hinder, radier than promote, national development (Rosegger, 1966).
Barro (1995) in Griffiths and Wall (1999), based on his empirical research for 98 countries over the period of 1960-86, argues that the main barrier for economic growth in LDCs is inadequate investment in human capital. Some economists, such as Griffiths and Wall (1999), however, consider human capital as a complementary input to physical capital, rather than a substitute. Supporting this argument, Rosegger (1966: 45) agrees that "people's education and training, and, with these, their ability to adopt easily and flexibly, technological changes are the key to improvement in real output."
"The fruits of HRD are evident in the much-publicized rapid development achieved over a short period of time by Singapore, Hong Kong, the Republic of Korea, Taiwan China, and earlier by Japan.
The World Bank studies of East Asian development have identified the investment in human capital as one important factor accounting for the rapid development, enabling it to periodically upgrade labour skills and the economy" (World Bank, 1993: 6-7). Developing people's education, knowledge, skills and abilities, helps the economy to grow through the production and provision of marketable goods and services and by attracting investment. This, in turn, helps to create the surpluses needed to raise living standards through increased incomes, more equitable income distribution, increased employment opportunities, improvements in infrastructure and better social benefits (e.g. education, health care, housing and social security). By creating opportunities for upward mobility, HRD reduces social stratification and tensions. In high population growth countries, HRD contributes to population control because acceptance of smaller families comes with higher levels of education (Harbison and Myers, 1964).