representation of women as historical characters in the visual images. Women featured in very few visual images and their representation in the images was also very low in each of the three textbooks. On average across the three textbooks women featured in only 22% of the visual images and only 17% of the historical characters depicted. Therefore it could be concluded that women are, in visual terms, seriously under-represented as historical actors in the three junior secondary school history textbooks studied. This under-representation portrays women as marginal in history and as people who contributed in a limited way in the past.
In terms of type of visual image in which women are depicted, a common pattern emerged in Textbooks B and C where it was found that in both textbooks women are portrayed mostly in group visual images together with men. It is difficult to draw a conclusion for Textbook A because only two visual images featuring women were included in the entire text, one depicting a woman alone and the other showing two women in a group together with men. However there is a marked congruence among the three textbooks in that more women were portrayed in group visual images together with men than on their own as individuals, in pairs or groups in each of the three textbooks. The portrayal of women in the company of men portrays women as dependent on men for historical activity and reduces agency in women to initiate historical action.
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The three textbooks also show a common pattern in the diversity of women portrayed. In each of the textbooks women, who differ in terms of social status, comprising both famous and ordinary women, are depicted in the visual images.
However, in all three textbooks the majority of women depicted in the visual images are ordinary women as opposed to famous women. It could therefore be concluded that in terms of social status, ordinary women are portrayed in more visual images, than famous women across the three textbooks. Another common feature noted across the textbooks was that both black and white women were depicted in the visual images. This indicates that in each of the textbooks both black and white women are recognised as actors in history. However, in terms of their representation, it was noted that in Textbooks A and B, black women dominated while in Textbook C white women out-numbered black women. It was observed that in Textbooks A and C, the difference in the representation of black and white women is not significant which suggests that race is not an issue in the numerical portrayal of women in these textbooks. In contrast, the difference in the representation of black and white women is most significant in Textbook B with the former in a dominant number. This suggests a racial issue in favour of black women in the numerical portrayal of women in Textbook B. In terms of roles attributed to the women, I found that black and white women are portrayed differently. White women are portrayed as more economically empowered than black women. Black women dominated in domestic and reproductive roles while it was only in Textbook C where women were depicted as mothers only in two visual images and in Textbook A where the Greek goddess was depicted in association with activities related to cooking. None of the white women were portrayed as wives in the visual images while black women were depicted in such roles.
It was also found across the textbooks that Malawian women as historical characters are marginalised in the visual images with a few variations. Textbook A completely excluded Malawian women in the visual images while Textbook B and C included a few in relation to other women. Therefore, in Textbook A Malawian women as historical characters are portrayed as invisible while in Textbook B and C they are marginal to the history of their country.
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In terms of roles and activities, it was found that women were portrayed in a variety of tasks in the visual images in the three textbooks. However, some roles were included in all the textbooks while others were common between two textbooks and some were exceptional to a particular textbook. For instance, it was established across the textbooks that women as historical characters were portrayed in a reproductive role and as mothers responsible for raising their children. For instance in Textbook A one of the slave women was shown carrying a baby on her back, in Textbook B the Khoisan hunter-gatherer women were depicted taking care of their children and in Textbook C two visual images showed women sitting together with their children. Therefore motherhood is seen in all the three textbooks as a historical role in which women contributed in the past.
Women were also portrayed in leadership roles in some visual images across all the textbooks. Textbook A depicted the Greek goddess as a spiritual leader, Textbook B portrayed women as queens in several images and in Textbook C one woman was shown as a leader who was shown controlling a mob at the celebration of the opening of the Stockton-Darlington Railway. Furthermore, across the three textbooks, it was found that women were portrayed as slaves either at work or being sold.
Some roles and activities as portrayed in the visual images were only found in certain textbooks. For instance, women portrayed in domestic roles in the visual images were only found in Textbooks A and B. Textbooks C did not contain any visual images of women in domestic roles. Women in Textbook A were depicted in domestic activities related to cooking and being responsible for food and in Textbook C there were a variety of activities such as taking care of the home, processing grain and being responsible for food. Furthermore, it was established that women were portrayed in economic and political activities only in Textbooks B and C.
Economically, women were depicted in business activities in Textbook B where they were shown selling in the market place and in a shop while in Textbook C women were portrayed as wage labourers in industry as spinners and in agriculture, picking cotton. In terms of political activities, women were depicted attending a political court meeting in Textbook B and in a number of political activities in Textbook C for example celebrating the attainment of freedom and justice and attending a Pan-
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African Conference. However, it was established that women were portrayed in religious roles only in Textbook B where some were depicted as angels and a staunch Muslim approaching the mosque for prayers.
It was also revealed across the three textbooks that women as historical characters were portrayed with a variety of character traits. In general women were portrayed with the character trait of leadership across the three textbooks while Textbook B and C shared in common the traits of self-confidence and hardworking spirit.
Similarly, Textbooks A and B portrayed women with the attribute of thoughtfulness.
Other characteristics were exceptional to specific textbooks such as patience, being weak, vulnerable, submissive and powerless in Textbook A while Textbook B portrayed women with shyness, self-respect dependence, respect for others and beauty and fashion.
It could therefore be concluded that there are more common patterns in the way women as historical actors are portrayed across the three history textbooks and between two textbooks than exceptions specific to a particular textbook.