2.4 School development in South Africa
2.4.7 Continuing professional teacher development
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practical for purposes of implementation. They firmly believe that the key priority of the districts is the provision of professional development needs for teachers. The co-authors argue against the quick fixes that districts normally offer as professional development programmes which fall short in meeting the requirements of consistency and sustainability of the programme.
The South African education system is taking cue from international trends on continuous professional teacher development as a critical and integral part of school development educational reform (Mokhele, 2011; De Clercq & Phiri, 2013; Steyn, 2013; Mokhele & Jita, 2014; Mahlangu, 2014; Mkhwanazi, 2014). A plethora of studies in South Africa have been conducted on teacher professional development as an emerging phenomenon in education reform (Steyn, 2008; 2009;2011;2013; Jita & Ndlalane, 2009; Bertram, 2011; Bush, Kiggundu & Moorosi, 2011; Jita & Ndlalane, 2012; Jita & Mokhele, 2012; Queen-Mary &
Mtapuri, 2014; Mkhwanazi, 2014). Steyn (2014) cautions against the current South African state sponsored CPTD programmes which may lend up as other technicist-functionalist paradigm imperatives. However, Steyn (2014) advocates for CPTD that empowers individuals to identify their weaknesses and plan to mitigate them. Mokhele (2011) argues that teacher circumstances and CPTD expectations need to be aligned for an effective programme. In turn, the ability to sustain the benefits of the intervention will be enhanced.
Mitchell and Jonker (2013) highlights the value of using a long-term developmental and organic approach to develop a community of practice for teacher support and development.
Scholars report the barriers and challenges of a diverse nature in the implementation of CPTD in South Africa (Coe, Carl & Frick, 2010; Phorabatho, 2013). The findings indicate that curriculum coordinators and SMTs are ineffective in discharging their role of managing teachers‘ CPD for curriculum change implementation. They lack sound understanding of their role, and they also experience a litany of practical impediments. These barriers, inter alia, include limited training for CPTD managers, shortage of relevant resources, difficulties of finding a suitable day and time for teachers‘ CPTD, CPTD managers‘ work overload and teachers‘ change weariness (Phorabatho, 2013). Ramango (2014) reports on CPTD implementation challenges which included the limited time allocated for CAPS training and
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content/subject training meetings held after working hours. Furthermore, these cascade models when used for policy implementation, they end up not adequately empowering teachers with knowledge and teaching skills for effective teaching practice in real classroom settings. In spite of these challenges and limitations Steyn (2013) strongly believes there are collaboration amongst teachers and principals is a great learning opportunity that needs to be exploited in order to improve the quality of education in South Africa.
The National Department of Education has provided a policy for the introduction of continuous professional development. From March 2014 the Umgungundlovu District started embarking on a roll out plan for the advocacy of Continuing Professional Teacher Development (CPTD). The workshops were conducted for deputy principals and principals across the district in cluster meetings. The traditional cascade model has been used for this advocacy of CPTD as also cited by other studies (Kriek & Greyston, 2009). The principals and deputy principals are expected in return to keep records and score points on the training they receive from the Teacher Development unit at the District and also other forms of training. I caution that this approach with all its good intentions may end up being a ritualistic tick exercise. The cascade model has been seen to fail the system by its lack of follow ups and the assumptions upon which it is based (Dichaba, 2013; Dichaba & Mokhele, 2012). Mapotse (2012) is his study argues in favour of Action Research (AR) as an intervention strategy that revealed an improvement in the teachers‘ understanding and implementation of Technology in the Mankweng Circuit, in Eastern Cape.
The CPTD programme in its essence is not a founded on sound educational principles, however the way it gets presented lacks coherence as the principals and deputy principals will be left on their own. In the website of the Kwazulu-Natal Department of Education, the Teacher Development Directorate has outlined the 2015 rollout plan for the training of post level one educators, which will be a mammoth task. However, the plans for the rollout of workshops are underpinned from the cascade model, which has its own shortcomings (Dichaba, 2013; Dichaba & Mokhele, 2012; Mapotse, 2012). Amponsah (2014) concluded that examined the Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD) technique, which was a
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teaching learner-centred approach impacted on the way teachers managed their responsibilities in the classroom.
Principal leadership is pivotal to systemic change, which adds to the three drivers of change that is trust, collaboration and capacity building. There is wide consensus regarding the idea that professional development is bound to be successful if it is a lifelong process (Middlewood & Parker, 2005; Robertson, 2008; Steyn, 2014; Steyn, 2015). However, several studies are also indicate the barriers in the establishment of PLCs (DuFour, 2004; DuFour, DuFour & Eacker, 2006; Clarke, 2014; Steyn, 2015). During this era of education transformation there is a general expectation that the school principal must initiate the facilitation for professional teacher development programmes in schools (Bush &
Middlewood, 2005; DuFour, DuFour & Eaker, 2006; Fullan, 2009; Mncube, Naicker &
Nzimakwe, 2010; Hilty, 2011;Jones, Stall & Yarbrough,2013). There is a growing requirement for the training of principals in order to be equipped to handle the challenges of school development (Bush, Briggs & Middlewood, 2006; OECD, 2009; Dempster, Lovett &
Fluckiger, 2011).
Leading change in an organisation goes beyond the narrow view of analysing the attributes of leadership. Many scholars have done research in this area and their findings reveal that continuous professional teacher development (CPTD) enhances teachers‘ daily practice and learner performance (Hord, 2008; Sargent & Hannum, 2009; Williamson & Blackburn, 2010;
Mncube, Naicker & Nzimakwe, 2010; Maloney & Konza, 2011; Seo & Han, 2012). Maloney and Konza (2011) in their study of PLCs in elementary schools, found that teachers are better positioned to successfully lead professional networks if they take ownership.
There is acknowledgement from several quarters of the need to professionally develop principals to meet challenges in this 21st century and the changing school needs (Chiome, 2011; Schley & Schratz, 2011; Morrison, 2013; Qian & Walker, 2013; Chu & Cravens, 2012;
Gay & Howard, 2000). Many teachers consider being overladen with too many initiatives.
This can be considered as an obstacle to change. The other limitation that is reported is the problem of policy overload to the education system, which results in teachers and leaders being demotivated. Another trajectory has been the proliferation of policies which are
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fostered from the top down without any support from the districts. The Umgungundlovu District recently rolled out support for curriculum policy changes in National Curriculum Statement (NCS) and also Continuous Professional Teacher Development (CPTD) which directly affect schools. Studies have been conducted in the context of the implementation of the South African curriculum which has been a bone of contention for decades (Carrim &
Keet, 2005; Chisholm, 2003; Chisholm, 2005; Pinar, 2103). The expectation from schools is that districts are supposed to provide ongoing and sustainable support in the interpretation of such policies to the letter. The glaring gaps are already seen in existing cascade model which leaves the teachers and principals on their own once the workshops have been finished (Dichaba, 2013; Dichaba & Mokhele, 2012; Scott, Swartz & Cooper; 2014).
Another critical aspect of professional development is journaling, which is a tool or demonstrating reflective practice. McMillan & Schumachi (2006) supports the value attached to the use of the journal as tool for record keeping. Towndrow, Ling & Ventham (2008) agree that journaling allows the researcher to produce information that is generated from the data by means of written narratives from the participants (Faziah, 2008). It assists in verifying the co-learning and co-researching between the respondents and the researcher, however training is critical for the success of this learning journey. The principals are shying away from using the journal for reflection as part of their responsibility in terms of continuing professional development (CPTD).
Amongst the leading drivers of school development, Fullan (2008) identified the role of empowerment in improving learner attainment. Fullan (2008) sponsored the idea of promoting purposive peer interaction amongst leaders. The difference with this notion is that people begin to value the idea of learning from each other. Fullan (2008) strongly believes on the idea of capacity building, which has also been supported by other scholars (Ash &
D‘Auria, 2013). Capacity building is valued as a significant driver for change in most education systems at all levels of the organisation. Amongst the practical ways that he has suggested are identifying talented system workers.
The principal in a school with a learning organisation mentality learns daily by means of reflection. Fullan (2008) has a firm belief that innovation and consistency can be achieved
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by learning on the job. The cascade workshop and course model of learning has its own limitations as compared to reflection in action. In a learning organisation there is room for innovation and experimentation by principals (Fullan, 2008). Principals have a responsibility of creating the conditions conducive for organisational learning. There is wide consensus that professional development is bound to be successful if it is a lifelong process (Middlewood, Parker & Beere 2005; Robertson, 2008; Steyn, 2010). The CPTD programme in South Africa is underpinned by the principles of continuous learning. In this learning the reflective practice of using journals is promoted (Bryk, Sebring, Allensworth, Luppescu
&Eaton, 2010; Abednego, Hovassapian, Teimournezhad & Ghanbari, 2013). In a learning organisation innovation and experimentation does not reside with the leadership. Principals are faced with the daunting task of handling journals, which demands time, practice and skill (Cohen-Sayaq & Fischl, 2012; Bryk et al, 2010). Several programmes are used for purposes of professionally developing principals for the 21st century challenges (Choy & Lidstone, 2013). South Africa is no exception as several studies refer to leadership professional development programmes for principals and the different approaches used in such programmes (Mathibe, 2007; Mestry, R., & Singh, 2007; Bush, 2011 ; Bush, Kiggundu &
Moorosi, 2011; Moorosi, 2013; Steyn, 2014). Shaked and Schechter (2013) recommended the professional development of principals in systems thinking. The co-authors identified the preparatory programmes, induction, as ideal for developing principals in the acquisition of systems thinking skills.
In a systems thinking perspective collective leadership and team work is the key principle above titles and positions. Empowered leadership gears towards sustainable, coherent and flexible school development. The above discussion shows the shift in ideas concerning continuing professional development and the value it can add to the holistic development of the school. The section below focuses curriculum development as one of the components that is interconnected to school development.
62 2.4.8 Curriculum development
It is argued that curriculum development is not a stand-alone concept, but rather exists in a complex web which is interrelated to other components in school development. Literature is a scarce in South Africa in the area of curriculum development, considering how it has evolved at a bone of political, ideological and socioeconomic contention. Studies have been conducted in the context of the implementation of the South African curriculum which has been a bone of contention for decades (Carim & Keet, 2005; Chisholm, 2003; Pinar, 2003).
According to Blasé and Blasé (2010) literature on instructional leadership falls into four broad models, which tends to limit the understanding of this concept. These will include amongst others, the prescriptive, instructional leadership, proscriptive and exploratory studies. The prescriptive includes what is found being practiced by most principals, namely integration of tasks of direct assistance to teachers, group development, staff development, and curriculum development. Principal leadership roles also include monitoring educator and learner progress. Hoadley, Christie and Ward (2009) makes a comparison regarding the prevailing realities of the South African schooling system which ends up dividing the functional from dysfunctional schools on the basis of how curriculum is dispensed. In South Africa there is limited literature that supports how schools in difficult conditions are coping with improvement of teaching and learning (Kiggundu & Van Rooyen, 2010; Bush, Kiggundu & Moorosi, 2011). According to Sofo, Fitzgerald and Jawas (2012) an effective instructional leader engages in capacity building, empowerment of the team of teachers, which is what Fullan (2010) also advocates as the role of the principal as systems thinker.
Another phenomenon of instructional leadership is whereby student leaders return to their former schools and support by teaching during the vacation period (Chapman & Harris, 2004;
Prew, 2007). Nuermerski (2013) calls for a rethinking of the way instructional leadership is conceived, by proposing an inclusive model that embraces the principal the teacher and coach. Mchunu and Imenda (2015) blended different teaching approaches which included the OBE, traditional and blended approaches in study conducted amongst grade 12 physical science learners.
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The section below focuses on teaching and learning as the other key aspects of school development. A whole school development approach is considered from different perspectives.