Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.6 Phase 2: Pre-Departure Training
2.6.2 Cross-Cultural Training
The objective of cross-cultural training is to reduce uncertainty and educate expatriates on culture to be able to communicate and interact effectively to allow for rapid adjustment in the host country (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1991) cited in (Okpara & Kabongo, 2011). Cross-cultural training is considered to be one of the most researched topics in expatriation (Everett & Cathro, 2008; Osman Gani & Rockshuhl, 2009) cited in (Wurtz, 2014).
According to Wurtz, (2014) the social learning theory distinguishes between pre-departure cross-cultural training and in-country cross-cultural training. Pre-departure cross-cultural training occurs in the home country before the commencement of the international assignment while in-country cross cultural assignment occurs in the host country when the international assignment has already begun.
Mendenhall et al, (1987) cited in (Tiwari, 2013), differentiates between three approaches to training in terms of the level of rigor:
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Information giving approach: Low level of rigor. These may include, area briefings, the use of language tutors and basic level of information required by the expatriate for survival on international assignments.
Affective approach: Medium level of rigor that deals with expatriates’ feelings and
‘facts’.
Immersion approach: High level of rigor that include in depth training such as sensitivity training, field experience and extensive language training.
Training is meant to reduce any uncertainty that the expatriate may be experiencing in the new role. An expatriate that is on a long term assignment will benefit from in-depth training during cultural immersion. The technique adopted by Japanese companies is to place expatriates and their family with foreign host country families (Holt, 1998). The rational for this technique is for the host family to provide cultural integration and actual living experiences for the expatriate and their families. This technique allows the expatriate an opportunity to test their limits before committing themselves to the long term assignment. Through cross-cultural training, issues such as ethical conduct, security, health and sustenance, education, political and legal aspects about the host country are discussed (Holt, 1998); (Dowling et al., 2013).
Training programs are formulated to improve interpersonal skills and are considered crucial for the overall performance of the expatriate during international assignments. In-depth training motivates and encourages the expatriate to socialize and pursue activities that will allow the new stress factors abroad become more bearable (Mendenhall et al. 1987) cited in (Chew, 2004).
Training develops the appropriate behaviors needed for expatriates wellbeing and self - confidence.
25 Figure 2.3 Pre-Departure Training Approaches
Source: Adapted by Tiwari, 2013, p. 358, Managing Human Resources in International Organisations, Research India.
Mendenhall, Dunbar & Oddou, (1987) developed pre-departure training approaches that defines training requirements based on the expatriates’ length of stay. The length of stay determines the
1-2 Months
1- 4 Weeks
Less than 4 Weeks
High
Level of Rigour
Low
Immersion Approach:
Assessment centre Field experience Simulations Sensitivity training
Extensive language training
Affective Approach:
Cultural assimilator training Language training
Role playing Critical incidents Case studies
Stress reduction training Moderate language training
Information Giving Approach Area briefings
Films/books User of interpreters
‘Survival level language training
Degree of Integration
Low Moderate High
Length of stay: 1 month or less 2-12 months 1-3 years Years
26 degree of training integration indicating the level of rigor which may either be low, moderate or high (Tiwari, 2013).
An expatriate who is assigned for one month or less will be provided with one-week training known as information giving approach. These include area briefings, use of interpreters, books and survival level language training. Assignments that are two to twelve months requires one to four weeks of training known as affective approach. The affective approach includes cultural assimilator training, language training, role play, case study exercise and stress reduction training. Lastly, assignments that are between one to three years require training of one to two months known as immersion approach. The immersion approach consists of training at an assessment center, field experience, simulations, sensitivity training and extensive language training (Ntshona, 2007; Tiwari, 2013).
According to Dowling et al. (2013), an acceptance and understanding on part of the expatriate regarding the host country culture is required or they are expected to face many challenges during the assignment. Research by Dowling et al. (2013) confirm that cultural awareness training is the most common type of pre-departure training. Organisations that provided language training confirm that there was huge improvement in the performance of expatriates because it allowed them to integrate well with host country nationals and culture which created a positive image of the host company (Rugman & Rodgetts, 2003) cited in (Vogel, 2006).
Tung (1998) cited in (Dowling et al., 2013) recommends the following attributes when decisions are made about pre-departure training.
Training should be for the purpose of continuous life-long learning and not a program that will last for a short period.
Greater provision for foreign language skills and training
An emphasis in the area of communication ability, the expatriate is expected to be bicultural and multi-lingual.
Cross-cultural training adds value by supporting diversity management
To facilitate effective performance in the host country, the expatriate’s position should be realistic
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