LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 CURRICULUM
2.2.4 Curriculum Models
A theory and model cannot be thought of as the same thing as a theory is a thought, and planned idea or concept, whereas a model is an expression of that thought used to test the theory's feasibility. Since curriculum theory has been difficult to develop, it has been suggested that it be discarded in favour of a focus on models of curricula (Marsh, 2004). Vallance (1982) and Posner (1989) further support the development of curriculum models. They advise that models are able to recognise the fundamental thought that needs to be taken into consideration for curriculum decisions to be made and that they show the interrelationships between concepts.
Curriculum models assist curriculum designers to methodically and transparently plan the underlying principles for the use of specific teaching, learning and evaluation strategies.
Ornstein and Hunkins (2009) caution that even though curriculum development models are
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helpful in principle, they frequently neglect the personal features such as attitudes, beliefs, morals and ethics involved in the creation and development of curriculum. For this reason, they suggest that curriculum models should not be a used as a replacement for drawing on a person’s professional and personal judgement on what is the best approach or strategy to improve and develop learning.
Although there are many curriculum models, the discussion that follows will consider two models of curriculum i.e. the curriculum as a product model (Bobbitt, 1928; Tyler, 1975) and curriculum as a process model (Barrow, 1984; Newman & Ingram 1989; Stenhouse, 1975).
The reason for focussing on these models is that the RNCS mirrors a change in Science Education in South Africa from a product model to a process model (Department of Education, 2003b). The change needs to be considered in teacher education programmes. Curriculum developers could get involved in discussions around the different models, which could be applied to support the planning and implementation of curriculum programmes so that appropriate teaching and learning experiences may be accomplished.
The two models have been developed and modified over the years. The product model of curriculum development is often referred to as an objective curriculum model and considers the curriculum as a technical exercise (Neary, 2003). Neary (2003) describes the product model as one which emphasises “plans and intentions” and the process model as one which emphasises “activities and effects” (p. 39). In the product model, knowledge is viewed as similar to a product that is constructed. It is assumed that initially the learner knows nothing and knowledge needs to be transmitted to the learner for learning to take place. The curriculum is designed according to a sequence of actions to ensure the learners attain a certain level.
These steps involve identifying the need, devising objectives, choosing content, arranging the content, choosing learning activities, arranging of learning activities and establishing what and how to evaluate. The product model of the curriculum deals primarily with what learners learn.
A concern of the product model is that the learner is excluded from the scenario as attention is on following the plan and focusing on teaching.
Stenhouse’s (1975) contribution to the process model of curriculum is widely cited.
He defined curriculum as, “an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice” (p. 142). He argues against the use of behavioural objectives and puts forward an inquiry-based approach to teaching and learning. Although he accepts the value of having knowledge as a basis, he highlights the need to learn through inquiry and discovery,
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which allows the possibility to attain “unintended Learning Outcomes” (Stenhouse, 1975, p.
147). The process model is closely associated with Hirsts’ (1974) forms of knowledge. For the process model, what is important is that learners make use of suitable procedures and concepts within the selected content. Consequently, the intention of the process model is to make available opportunities for learners to make use of the procedures and concepts to construct knowledge and not to teach specific subject matter/content (Bertram, Fotheringham
& Barley, 2000).
The process model, in contrast to the product model deals with how learners learn and with their personal development. In the process model, learners are seen as being involved in creating knowledge and are not seen as being passive recipients of knowledge. Hence the process model is associated with cognitive and constructivist theories of learning. Terwel (1999) confirms the effect constructivist theories have on curriculum studies. He declares,
“Constructivism undoubtedly has a valuable contribution to make to curriculum theory and practice” (Terwel, 1999, p. 198). There will be repercussions for curriculum theory and practice if teachers and learners construct their own curricula. The constructivist movement reiterates the dynamic position of the learner in attaining knowledge and the social construction of knowledge.
Some important characteristics of the process model indicate that there is a move from objectives to providing learners with choices; the curriculum is viewed as involving teachers, learners and knowledge working together. There is a deliberate shift in focus from teaching to learning with the curriculum being viewed as dynamic. Knight (2001) favours a process model of curriculum planning in comparison to the product model. He says it is logical to plan curriculum in this instinctive way, “reassured by the claim from complexity theory that what matters is getting the ingredients - the processes, messages and conditions - right and trusting that good outcomes will follow” (p. 379). This implies that when operating from a process model of learning outcomes, it may be more important to initially think about what it is you are actually attempting to accomplish in the teaching/learning activities and to then write the curriculum or module learning outcomes.
Some of the concerns with the process model relate to the need for having uniformity and standardisation in the content. As the learner is an active participant in his learning, this could change the dynamics of classroom interactions and allow for an assortment of content being taught. Another key issue is the quality of the teacher who is at the centre of the process model, which could be seen as a strength or a weakness.
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As mentioned in chapter one, when the South African NCS was introduced in 1997 it was confronted with significant challenges which resulted in it being reviewed, thus the RNCS emerged. The RNCS is built on the principles of C 2005, which uphold the principles of OBE.
OBE is not structured around subjects but around integrated learning areas. This integration was achieved through “replacing vast collections of facts and concepts with broad critical outcomes and specific outcomes, which could be achieved by a variety of routes” (Hoadley &
Jansen, 2009, p. 173). OBE considers the process as important as the content. The learners have a set of outcomes to attain through which the process and content of education may be achieved. These outcomes “encourage a learner-centred and activity-based approach to education” (Department of Education 2002a, p. 1). C2005 is therefore considered to be an example of a process model of curriculum.