LIST OF TABLES
2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF LEADERSHIP THEORIES The various schools of thought on leadership are related,
enjoying some commonality; namely tasks and human relationship. However, due to certain differences, they may be separated into different schools from the traditional to the more contemporary.
Figure 2.4 Management Theories
MANAGE~!mTHEORIES
Pre-classical contributions
Classical approach
Behaviourist
~
school ~
~~I'lC'fr~A~t;
Management sciences approach
Contemporary approaches
Scientific Early Operational Systems approltch behaviQurist research approach '... Administrative Hawthome Operational Contingency
approach studies management approach
Bureaucratic Human InloTlnauon Ouchi's
view view (data) Theory Z
management Behavioural sciences approach
Source: Adapted from: Bartol & Martin (1991:42)
2.4.1 Schools of Leadership Theories
The two schools of leadership theories; the scientific and behavioural school, are made up of three primary theories, namely Organisational, Trait and Attitudinal.
• The Scientific School - Frederick Winslow Taylor
Based on a scientific approach, this school of thought made its mark between 1900 and 1930, and identified with the studies and writings of Frederick Winslow Taylor (1911:96), which was technological in nature. F.W. Taylor (1911: 96 was of the opinion that the best way to increase output was to improve the techniques, or methods used by workers and went on think of people as instruments or machines that could be manipulated by leaders. Taylor's counterparts believed that an organisation that was properly planned and managed could be built to be efficient and as the result of this clinical planning, would increase output.
F.W. Taylor (1911:96) said: "the leader did not have to be involved with human relations and emotions, resulting in the worker having to adjust to the leader and not the leader to the worker." In order for this theory to be successful, F. W. Taylor (1911: 96) started his time -and -motion study which analysed work tasks that would improve worker performance within the organisation. The objective was to create job efficiency In the worker's mind, and only thereafter the worker's financial interest could be satisfied by incentive work plans. F.W. Taylor's (1911:96) theory focused on performance in order to meet organisational goals, hence the leader was concerned with organisational needs; not worker needs.
• Human Relationships Movement - Elton Mayo
Elton Mayo (1945:23) and his associates argued that in addition to finding the best technological methods to improve output, it was beneficial to management to look into human affairs. Experiments conducted by Elton Mayo (1886-1949) at Hawthorne Works of Western Electric Company conceded that higher production was not solely dependant solely upon organisations providing better physical working conditions, such as lighting, good ventilation and better pay. Productivity improves when leaders displayed greater interest in their workers, notwithstanding their working conditions. According to Elton Mayo (1945 :23) the organisation was to be developed around the workers and had to take into consideration human feelings and attitudes and the function of the leader was to facilitate cooperative goal attainment among workers while providing opportunities for their personal growth and deveIopm ent.
Hersey and Blanchard (1988:88), sums up the two conflicting schools of leadership: "the scientific theory was focused on tasks (output); while the human relations theory concentrated on relationships (people), giving rise to three dominant phases; namely, Trait, Attitudinal and Situational Leadership."
2.4.2 Current Approaches to Leadership
The views and research of contemporary approaches to leadership are: The Systems Approach, The Contingency Approach and Ouchi's Theory Z, illustrated below:
Figure 2.5 The Systems Approach
Three contemporary approaches10management
The contingency approach The systems
approach
/ -~r ~
.)
Ouchi's Theory Z
Source: Adapted from: De Beer, Rossouw, Moolman, et al:
1998:8
• The Systems Approach
According to De Beer, Rossouw, Moolman, et al (1978: 8) the systems approach focuses on the organisational structure, based on the concept of the whole is the sum of its parts. The organisation is seen as an integrated, focused system that is made up of interdependent parts or subsystems. De Beer, Roussow, Moolman, et al (1978:8) believe leaders must take cognisance of this concept as decisions in one area will affect the entire organisation because the rationale behind the thinking in this school of
thought is that leaders must be aware that each area / unit is not independent, but interdependent and impacts on decisions made within the organisation.
• The Contingency Approach
This theory was developed from leaders trying to make decisions using an integration of the various theories available under different situations. According De Beer, Roussow, Moolman, et al (1978:8), researchers found that good results were obtained In spec i fic situations, using specific principles of leadership. Later, using the same theory in similar situations, the results may be less successful. There was no consistency. Due to the inconsistency, De Beer, Roussow, Moolman, et al (1978:8), believe that leaders should find a fit between the leadership technique that will contribute to the overall goals of the organisation as a whole within a specific situation and specific time. It became apparent just how complex the leadership of specific situations within the organisation was, and therefore De Beer, Roussow, Moolman, et al (1978:9), asks the following question: "which are the best fit method/techniques/approaches that will deliver the best
results in a specific situation?"
• The Ouchi' s Theory Z
This contemporary was developed in the early 1980s to specifically find the reasons behind the drop in productivity in the United States of America, compared with other countries, especially Japan. According to De Beer, Roussow, Moolman, et al (1978:9), this theory was developed from a combination of the best practice / successful leadership principles used In Japanese and
American organisations, and culminated into one theory known as the Ouchi's Theory Z.