2.4 Challenges encountered when teaching intellectually challenged learners
2.4.4 Disabilities and illnesses
Physical disabilities usually result from neurological disorders such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy, spina bifida and muscular dystrophy. Skeletal and muscular weakening occurs in children which can result in amputations, osteogenesis imperfecta and injury wounds (Kruger, 2002). Landsburg (2016) states that physical disabilities usually affect learners’ freedom of movement and physical liveliness. In the absence of motivation, learners who are physically challenged will have a poor self-image and physical disability becomes a barrier to learning if it hinders learners’ active participation in learning
32 activities. Learners who are physically challenged need support regarding their psychosocial needs, mobility, the loss of sensation, pressure sores and incontinence (Landsburg, 2016). In most cases, learners with physical challenges often stay away from school when they have a doctor’s appointment and thus their learning can be negatively affected.
ii. Reading disabilities
Moats and Tolman (2009) identify three kinds of early reading disabilities and argue that, as much as these disabilities overlap, they are diverse. These disabilities are phonological deficit, processing speed/orthographic processing deficit, and comprehension deficit.
Phonology is “the study or description of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) of a language and their relationship to one another” (Richards & Schmidt, 2010, p. 433).
Phonological deficit is the problem learners experience in processing the sounds of the alphabet and it is believed that this emanates from the oral language. Phonological deficit can also be regarded as dyslexia which, according to Moats and Dankin (2004), is a reading impairment which affects accuracy and fluency that are characterised by phonological impairment.
Processing speed is the deficit that affects the fluency of learners’ reading.
Comprehension deficit is all comprehension language learning disabilities related to language learning disorders that affect intellectual reasoning and analytical thinking.
According to Moats and Tolman (2009), about 70−80% of learners with reading problems has a form of deficiency that is related to phonology, 10% battles with fluency, and the remaining 10% is related to comprehension deficit. Because a large percentage of reading disabilities emanates from phonological deficit, it is imperative that FP educators intensify learners’ understanding of phonemes (i.e., the smallest units of sounds) and their relationship to one another. Intellectually challenged learners need to be taught these phonemes to minimise reading challenges for them. Phonological awareness and correct pronunciation are imperative for good reading skills.
Based on the findings of a study that was concerned with the importance of phonology in the teaching of pronunciation, O’Connor (2006) discusses the relevancy of implementing the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in ensuring that learners pronounce the letters correctly. Even though the teaching of
33 pronunciation has been neglected by language teachers in the 1970s and 1980s, it has been witnessed that these two skills are inseparable (O’Connor, 2006). In addition, Broughton, Brumfit, D Wilde, and Pincas (2002) regard phonetics as an appropriate instrument that can be employed by educators in the instruction of pronunciation. This is because, during phonetics instruction, learners are educated to identify and classify sounds into vowels and consonants (Broughton et al., 2002). Consonants are distinguished according to the movement of the mouth during vocalization (which can either be bilabial, dental, alveolar, palatal or velar), or the movement of the tongue, or in the use of the voice (voiced, voiceless, plosive, affricate, fricative, nasal, or lateral). On the other hand, vowels are distinguished based on the position of the tongue and lip turning (Haycraft, 1996). Consequently, Haycraft (1996) regards phonological acquisition as a useful tool in teaching reading because many mistakes made by struggling readers relate to sound production.
iii. Illness and absenteeism
There are several illnesses that might have an influence on the burden of disability, such as nutritional deficiencies, infectious diseases, mother-to-child transmitted diseases such as the HIV, and tuberculosis (TB) viruses, foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), and injuries sustained through violence (Adnams, 2010).
Quite a few learners in sub-Saharan Africa who never received antiretroviral treatment immediately after birth have been reported to have high levels of cognitive disability and visual, spatial and motor arrears. They also suffer from neurological impairments and seizures (Abubakar, Van Baar, & Van de Vijver, 2008; Smith, Adnams, & Eley, 2013; Wilmshurst, Burgess, Hartley, & Eley, 2006). Moreover, Smith, Adnams, and Eley (2008) state that even if children from HIV/AIDS infected parents receive treatment, their cognitive functioning is in the mild intellectual disability range. Synchronously, they become orphans at a young age. It is therefore very unlikely that these young orphans will receive the necessary attention at home; and if they ever received interventions, these efforts are mostly short- lived. Frequent sickness that is generally associated with HIV infection may be central to chronologically sick learners who are always tired and unable to concentrate during lessons (Landsburg, 2016). Sick learners are normally given regular resting periods which becomes a challenge because they experience gaps in learning due to their absenteeism. Moreover, whatever challenges to learning these children experience, they may not receive the necessary interventions and they may suffer from severe learning disabilities later in life.
34 TB is a disease that is highly prevalent in South Africa. It mainly affects the lungs but can also affect the heart, skeletal system, kidneys and the brain lining. It mostly affects people in low socio-economic settings because of overcrowding as it can be easily transferred by air (Adnams, 2010).
Turbeculous meningitis (TBM) is a highly dangerous lung disease that leads to the most severe form of extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. It is associated with high sickness and death rates in African children (Adnams, 2010). In severe cases, TBM-affected children may suffer from poor cognitive ability which results in moderate to severe intellectual challenges. Just like HIV infected learners, TB patients suffer from chronic tiredness which means that they miss out on learning opportunities in class, then the illness thus becomes a barrier to their learning.
Adnams (2010) declares that FASD is a consequence of an unborn baby being exposed to alcohol by mothers who consume extreme amounts of alcohol during pregnancy. As a result, most South African children with FASD are operational in the mild intellectually challenged group. This syndrome places unnecessary stress on the health, education, social and justice services because these learners need to be supported in all these spheres. Kirk, Gallagher, Anastasiow, and Coleman (2006) regard alcohol as one of the most dangerous environmental toxins that is detrimental to the development of the foetus if consumed by a pregnant woman.