CHAPTER 8 TEACHING AND LEADERSHIP
6.2 DIVINING IN THE CLASSROOM
173 CHAPTER 6: HOW LEADERSHIP HAPPENS IN THE CLASSROOM –
OBSERVING AND LISTENING
174 teacher meeting the needs of his/her pupils (task, team and individual), which is consistent with Adair’s action centred theory of leadership (see Chapter 2 and Figure 2.1). (Incidence = 99 in the twelve lessons; observed in use by all four teachers). ‘Meeting needs’ includes, in the first instance, meeting the needs of individuals. It also involves paying attention to the personal and individual needs of children and sometimes anticipating those needs. On other occasions, it involves helping when help is sought, answering individual questions, and providing personal assistance, giving reassurance, and anticipating personal weaknesses. Examples of this, as evidenced in three of the lessons that I observed, are as follows:
Teacher: “I will come around and show you individually as well.”
(Ruby 1)
Teacher: “If I put up a list of abbreviations will that help you?”
(Sapphire 1)
Teacher: “Put up your hands if you do not have a clue what is going on.” (Diamond 1)
Meetings needs also involves meeting group needs (albeit of the whole class or of smaller work teams) by way of creating a sense of belonging, sharing the work load equitably, and fostering team spirit (through instigating competitive activities). Meeting group needs is illustrated by the following examples, as taken from the observed lessons:
Teacher: “Yesterday that was the best working group; let us see which the best is today.” (Sapphire 1)
Teacher: “Who is the fourth member of your group? Are you happy like that?” (Ruby 1)
Teacher: “Quickly in your groups – nominate a leader; that leader must stand up. Group leaders, you are going to be doing all the running about for the group.” (Topaz 1)
Teacher: “Amongst yourselves you must organise who is going to be in charge of the group. Then you will each be given a task by your team leader.” (Ruby 1)
175 The respondents were also observed attending to the various task needs of the class; they did this by providing clear descriptions of the goals of the task, providing the necessary resources, and encouraging the pupils to successfully complete the task. The meeting of task needs is demonstrated in the following five examples, as taken from the observed lessons:
Teacher: “Don’t forget to give your bar graph a heading.” (Diamond 1)
Teacher: “Keep in mind what it is you aim to accomplish… all your equipment that you need is in these boxes I have put on your desks.”
(Ruby 1)
[Pupils collect boxes of materials that have been prepared by the teacher from the front of the class.] Teacher: “We will unpack the boxes just now – I just need you to focus first.” (Sapphire 1)
Teacher [describing the format of a report on a science experiment]:
“I want you to write: ‘we used a triple-beam balance’.” (Ruby 1) Teacher: “I would like to come around and see that at least everyone has a title for their product.” (Sapphire 1)
The next most utilised hallmarks were intellectual stimulation and affirmation. These hallmarks were witnessed on thirty-eight occasions each and both were observed being used by all the four teachers that were observed. An effective teacher demands that his/her pupils use their intellect, be creative, and solve problems for themselves or in collaboration with other pupils.
In other words, such teachers call “upon the power of concentration, memory and thought”
(Delors, 1996, p. 87) in their pupils. The following examples, as taken from the observed lessons, show teachers creating an environment conducive to intellectual stimulation by way of asking their pupils questions that require them to think creatively:
Teacher: “Define social development in your own words.” (Diamond 1)
Teacher: “What would you say is the smallest unit of measuring time?” (Sapphire 1)
176 Teacher: “Think about different types of transport.” (Diamond 1)
Teacher: “Why do you think transport is so important?” (Diamond 1)
Leaders who interact and, in particular, teachers who work with children soon learn about the value of and positive benefits that accompany affirmation, verbal reward, care, kindness, and encouragement. This statement was confirmed through the words of the following respondent, who, in an individual interview, extolled the value of affirmation in the form of praise:
Whether you are an adult or a child, everyone needs praise. Praise is a drive that engenders passion. (Topaz 1)
All four of the teachers that were observed were quick to affirm the good efforts and excellent work of their pupils, and they did so regularly (i.e. whenever the opportunity arose), as can be noted in the following quotes, taken from the recordings of the observed lessons:
Teacher: “What is the chemical formula for water?”
Pupils [in chorus]: “
Teacher: “Not bad for a Monday.” (Ruby 1) .”
Teacher: “You made a very good observation there.” (Sapphire 1) Teacher: “There are some nice things coming out there guys – people are using their brains.” (Diamond 1)
Teacher: “Well done, everyone knows basically what they are doing.” (Sapphire 1)
Teacher: “… another very good idea.” (Diamond 1)
Teacher [moving around the classroom during a work session]: “I am seeing some beautiful drawings.” (Topaz 1)
Another hallmark that occurred with some frequency (i.e. thirty-three times) was high performance standards. The example that follows shows how Topaz 1 set benchmarks for her pupils with regard to levels of performance to which they should aspire:
177 Teacher [explaining how diagrams should be constructed by the
pupils]: “[…] with lines all ending at the same place – if not you will lose marks. Remember, I’d like nice neat drawings.”
Individualised consideration, which occurs in addition to actively meeting the needs of individuals, occurred twenty-four times during the observed lessons. Individualised consideration is evidenced through demonstrations of love and showing concern for the welfare and well-being of individual children. The teachers quoted below display individualised consideration as they interact with those pupils whom they have discerned as needing specialised and individual attention:
Teacher [to a pupil struggling with a piece of work after a lengthy one-on-one conversation]: “I hope I have given you some ideas for your design.” (Sapphire 1)
Teacher [to a pupil who had to move close to the front board to read a word]: “Don’t worry; I also have to read from close up.” (Topaz 1)
And, during the same lesson, in a show of concern for a possibly sick or unhappy pupil (one boy had his arm on the desk and was resting his head on it), this teacher said:
Is there anything the matter? [She stays and talks with him a while.]
A sense of humour can be demonstrated through the telling of jokes, the playing of innocent pranks on the children, and the recognition of the funny side of situations. Examples of teachers possessing a sense of humour were noted on nineteen occasions in all. Three examples follow here:
Teacher:” What is the chemical symbol for ice?
Some pupils [calling out]: “i”
Teacher [laughing]: “Ice is not an element.” [Laughter and excitement in the class.] “‘i’ is for iodine, not ice.” (Ruby 1)
Teacher: “You must make good decisions – level-head does not mean your head is flat.” (Sapphire 1)
178 Teacher [teasing Grade 8 pupils]: “If you make it to Grade 9, if you
survive the year, if you survive this lesson.” (Ruby 1)
Fifteen examples were noted of teachers enrolling all voices in their vision (i.e. working to bring all the pupils into the goals of the exercise because they want to be involved). An example of this is set out below, where Topaz 1 effectively uses the promise of a ‘teach back’
technique to excite interest:
Teacher: “I am going to give each group a topic, and then you are going to teach me.”
Several hallmarks of leadership are not included by frequency of occurrence in this summary.
as these were ongoing throughout the lessons These hallmarks include: communicating (i.e.
speaking, listening, using gestures and non-verbal/body language), knowing the pupils (i.e.
knowing their names, knowing about aspects of their lives, such as the sport teams for which they play, knowing the areas in which they live, and knowing the hobbies that they pursue), knowing the subject (i.e. having knowledge of the subject matter being taught, being able to answer questions and discuss issues, and being well prepared for the lessons), and possessing leader presence (i.e. being consciously present in terms of focus and concentration, reaching out to pupils by talking and listening, being expressive through one’s voice, and showing emotions).
A number of the identified hallmarks were barely used by the four teachers that were observed, and others were not evidenced by them at all. Those hallmarks that arose on only a few occasions were: being committed to people’s growth (ten occasions), reading the emotions of others and evidencing that one is lead by one’s values (eight occasions each), being achievement oriented, being someone who builds trust and sound relationships, and having a warm and welcoming attitude (seven occasions each), and showing empathy as well as having a sense of optimism and possibility (six occasions each). Also in this category of having just a few occasions recorded were: managing one’s own emotions, displaying visionary leadership, being persuasive, showing good stewardship abilities, showing compassion, and empowering others. Twenty-five other identified hallmarks were noted as not occurring at all during the lessons observed.
179 Despite the fact that overt signs of servant leadership were not specifically apparent, the meeting of needs embraces a sense of service. Furthermore, such issues as realistic self- assessment, awareness of leadership principles, courage, dependability, generosity, foresight, systems thinking, and understanding personality types. These are hallmarks that may reasonably be expected to not appear during only twelve hours of observation. The teachers may well possess these hallmarks but they are hallmarks that do not necessarily find opportunity to be displayed in every lesson. (See Appendix D for a list of all the hallmarks and the number of times each was exhibited.)
Leadership occurs within a context and it is relational in that it involves those directly concerned. The importance of context for leadership studies has been noted by Duke (1998, p.
166), who writes:
Separating leadership from context is analogous to identifying the food one wants for dinner while ignoring where it is to be consumed.
Whether one chooses to eat a salad at a fast-food restaurant or a country inn can have a great bearing on the quality of the experience.
The significance of paying attention to classroom climate is considered next, as it is thought to be an important contributor to how leadership occurs in the teaching-and-learning process.