Declaration 2: Publication and Manuscripts
6.1 Effects and beneficiaries
Based on their experiences, participants were asked to share what they thought were the effects of umuganda. Table 6.1 shows a similarity of responses: participants report that in the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods, umuganda’s major impact was to reduce poverty (63%, 62% and 49% respectively in Kigali, and 75%, 76% and 71% in Western Province).
It is interesting to note that in pre-colonial Rwanda, when the state’s control over, and influence on, umuganda was at its lowest people believed that it was important for poverty reduction. It is believed that people’s own initiatives enabled them to help improve their conditions. Compared to other periods, results from Kigali indicates a low percentage (49%) of those who though that umuganda helped to reduce poverty in the post-colonial period.
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After the genocide, the effect of umuganda on the population is less decisive, as indicated under the heading ‘all the above’ (55% in Kigali, and 52% in Western Province). These effects are primarily identified as: (1) poverty eradication (8% in Kigali, and 19% in Western Province);
(2) good governance and accountability (17% in Kigali, and 16% in Western Province); and (3) unity and reconciliation (18% in Kigali, and 10% in Western Province). Significantly, umuganda’s role in poverty eradication is now seen to be greatly reduced in comparison with all the earlier periods. For example, the responses were distributed between good governance and accountability (17%) and unity and reconciliation (18%) in Kigali with only 8% identifying poverty eradication. By contrast in the Western Province a relatively high percent (19%) thought that umuganda helps in poverty eradication, while 16% indicated that it contributes to good governance and accountability and10% who thought that it has resulted in unity and reconciliation.
Table 6.1: The effects of umuganda
Location Pre-
colonial
Colonial Post- colonial
Post- genocide
n % n % n % n %
Kigali Effect that umuganda has on the population
64 84 66 87 70 92 76 100
Poverty eradication 48 63 47 62 37 49 6 8
Good governance and accountability
5 7 10 13 12 16 13 17
Unity and reconciliation 4 5 1 1 6 8 14 18
All the above 6 8 5 7 13 17 42 55
Other 1 1 3 4 2 3 1 1
Western Province
Effect that umuganda has on the population
62 98 63 100 63 100 63 100
Poverty eradication 47 75 48 76 45 71 12 19
Good governance and accountability
4 6 1 2 4 6 10 16
Unity and reconciliation 9 14 7 11 11 17 6 10
All the above 2 3 3 5 3 5 33 52
Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3
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The focus group discussions in Kigali added more detail to these findings. In the pre-colonial period, umuganda contributed apparently to national building. In the colonial era, the impact that umuganda had on the population was to increase the colonial economy, while also dividing the population so they could be more easily ruled. Thereafter until the genocide, umuganda had the effect of dividing and controlling the people, of acting as a channel of communication, and serving to empower the ruling party (MRND). After the genocide, umuganda is seen to have made the population responsible for public facilities, helped them to live in clean surroundings, but also controlled citizens. From an interview with a leader in charge of umuganda and community mobilisation at sector level, it was heard that:
Rwanda is acclaimed to be a clean country in Africa and worldwide. This is because of the commitment of the population towards umuganda (LL 11-a 16 Dec 2010).
It is hard to believe, though, that the practice of umuganda itself has made the country clean.
There must be other explanations besides. Recalling that umuganda is only done once a month, it cannot be given full credit for the cleanliness that is seen in Kigali. For example, Kigali City employs dedicated cleaners who are not working in terms of umuganda.
Statements regarding cleanliness in Rwanda are not new. Often after umuganda, President Kagame reminds the participants that ‘the monthly umuganda practice has contributed to Rwanda’s worldwide reputation for cleanliness’.46Such statements are intended to motivate the people to have a positive attitude toward the maintenance of a clean environment, even in their own villages and homes.
Although umuganda has supposedly helped to foster cleanliness, other opinions from Western Province (3%) in Table 6.1 include the view that currently umuganda has the effect of controlling the Rwandan population. While umuganda has been spoken of as an institution to
46 From the Office of the President: President Kagame joins Nyarugenge [Kigali district] residents for umuganda.
Kigali, 28 March 2009.
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be relied on for poverty reduction, it has been expected to facilitate other government programs that are in line with the developmental goals of the country. The poverty reduction function, which has long historical roots, remains an important consideration in understanding the impact of umuganda on peoples’ livelihoods.
6.1.1 Beneficiaries of umuganda
Who benefits from umuganda? More especially, participants were asked to indicate whether individuals within the community, political leaders or both, benefit most from umuganda. Table 6.2 indicates that there are different opinions regarding the benefits of umuganda over the historical periods. In the pre-colonial era, umuganda is believed to have been beneficial to each person in the community (54% in Kigali, and 62% in Western Province), while in the colonial era it was believed to have been beneficial only to leaders (39% in Kigali, and 48% in Western Province). These were either colonial masters or the king or chiefs representing the colonial state. In the colonial period, a different ideology had been conceived about umuganda. The state converted umuganda into an institution of government service. Respondents believe that in the post-colonial period until the genocide, as well as currently, umuganda was and is beneficial to both individuals and leaders (46% and 53% respectively in Kigali, and 49% and 54%
in Western Province), but of little benefit for leaders only (8% in Kigali and 11% in Western Province).
145 Table 6.2: Who benefits the most from umuganda?
Location Pre-
colonial
Colonial Post- colonial
Post- genocide
n % n % n % n %
Kigali Who gets more benefit from umuganda?
69 91 70 92 75 99 76 100 Each person in the community 41 54 19 25 18 24 29 38
Only leaders 5 7 30 39 20 26 6 8
Both individuals and leaders 22 29 20 26 35 46 40 53
Others 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1
Western Province
Who gets more benefit from umuganda?
63 100 63 100 63 100 63 100 Each person in the community 39 62 20 32 17 27 22 35
Only leaders 6 10 30 48 15 24 7 11
Both individuals and leaders 18 29 13 21 31 49 34 54
Other 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
More details about the benefits of umuganda for individuals, the community, for leaders and for the country were sought from respondents.
6.1.2 The level of benefits for each person in the community
As can be seen in Table 6.3, respondents in Kigali thought that in the pre-colonial period and, currently, in the post-genocide umuganda was and is very beneficial to each individual (53%
and 41% respectively). However, there is a very close and significant 39% who think that now it is beneficial. While in Kigali respondents thought that only in the colonial and post-colonial periods until genocide, was umuganda beneficial (33% and 47%), those in Western Province believe that umuganda was beneficial throughout the four periods (49%, 37%, 56%, and 49%
respectively).
146 Table 6.3: Level of benefit: Individual
Location Level of benefit Pre-
colonial Colonial Post-
colonial Post- genocide
n % n % n % n %
Kigali Local individuals 69 91 71 93 75 99 76 100
Very beneficial 40 53 13 17 15 20 31 41
Beneficial 21 28 25 33 36 47 30 39
Less beneficial 3 4 21 28 20 26 13 17
Not beneficial at all 5 7 12 16 4 5 2 3
Western
Province Local individuals 63 100 63 100 63 100 63 100
Very beneficial 27 43 10 16 5 8 16 25
Beneficial 31 49 23 37 35 56 31 49
Less beneficial 5 8 14 22 16 25 9 14
Not beneficial at all 0 0 16 25 7 11 7 11
Nevertheless, there are those who hold the opinion that umuganda is not beneficial (11%, 44%, 31% and 20% respectively in Kigali, and 8%, 47%, 36% and 25% in Western Province - opinions range from less beneficial to not beneficial at all). The latter percentages look at the benefit of umuganda beyond state control and for public benefit. Here umuganda might be seen as a purely state-imposed service. Although the percentages are low, the non-beneficial aspect of umuganda started during colonial rule and has never been reversed, implying that the role of the state since colonialism has been to rob umuganda of its original social purpose and meaning.
6.1.3 Level of benefits for the entire local community
Table 6.4 indicates that while respondents from Kigali specified that in the pre-colonial period umuganda was very beneficial for the entire local community (42%), people from Western Province think that it was just beneficial for local community (56%). Both communities (Kigali and Western Province) believe that in the colonial and post-colonial eras until the genocide, as well as in the current post-genocide era, umuganda was and still is beneficial to the local
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community (37 %, 51%, and 51% respectively in Kigali, and 56%, 46%, 59% and 52% in Western Province).
Table 6.4: Level of benefit: local community
Location Pre-
colonial
Colonial Post- colonial
Post- genocide
n % n % n % n %
Kigali Entire community 69 91 71 93 74 97 76 100
Very beneficial 32 42 12 16 11 14 21 28
Beneficial 26 34 28 37 39 51 39 51
Less beneficial 6 8 20 26 22 29 13 17
Not beneficial at all 5 7 11 14 2 3 3 4
Western
Province Local community 63 100 63 100 63 100 63 100
Very beneficial 20 32 11 17 4 6 13 21
Beneficial 35 56 29 46 37 59 33 52
Less beneficial 7 11 10 16 17 27 14 22
Not beneficial at all 1 2 13 21 5 8 3 5
While respondents were very conscious of the benefits of umuganda in terms of schools and roads built, there are those(21% in Kigali and 27% in Western Province), who maintain that umuganda is not beneficial to the local community, these opinions ranging from ‘less beneficial’
to ‘not beneficial at all’. Surely roads at least are beneficial? However, some rural inhabitants think that roads and public buildings add little or no value to their well-being. This is the case in Western Province, where people survive on their small plots. One participant elaborated:
We cannot say umuganda has been very beneficial because it will be an exaggeration and we also cannot also say that it has been less beneficial because that will be to overlook some of its activities. We have visible results of umuganda such as extra classrooms or houses that are built for survivors of genocide and other poor families but having a shelter to live in or classrooms is not enough (OCM 11-b 28 Dec 2010).
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This opinion is related to the idea that nowadays umuganda is not left to people’s initiative. The practice of umuganda has become distant and an individual community member cannot ask for help in times of need from fellow community members but only when a government leader orders an umuganda activity to take place. This shows a continuation of the state’s usurping of umuganda to impose what it believes to be beneficial on the population.
6.1.4 The level of benefit to political leaders
Table 6.5 shows a significant similarity of umuganda’s perceived benefit to political leaders across the historical periods. In the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial eras until genocide as well as post-genocide, umuganda is seen generally to have been, and to be, very beneficial to political leaders (37%, 58%, 51% and 50% respectively in Kigali, and 38%, 59%, 48% and 55%
in Western Province).
Table 6.5: Level of benefit: political leaders
Location Pre-
colonial Colonial Post-
colonial Post- genocide
n % n % n % n %
Kigali Political leaders 68 89 70 92 74 97 76 100
Very beneficial 28 37 44 58 39 51 38 50
Beneficial 22 29 19 25 29 38 28 37
Less beneficial 7 9 4 5 4 5 8 11
Not beneficial at all 11 14 3 4 2 3 2 3
Western
Province Political leaders 63 100 63 100 63 100 63 100
Very beneficial 24 38 37 59 30 48 35 56
Beneficial 22 35 19 30 28 44 21 33
Less beneficial 7 11 7 11 4 6 6 10
Not beneficial at all 10 16 4 6 1 2 1 2
As the findings indicate, political leaders and other state agents largely benefit from umuganda.
This goes beyond just using people to implement their decisions; umuganda also increased the popularity of political leaders and sustained their politico-ideological hold on power.
149 An elder commented:
Umuganda makes a political leader’s work easy because for anything that they want to achieve, they can use umuganda to get it. Also activities done like public buildings and infrastructure present the quality of leadership. You see, they go to their employers and say this is what we have achieved and it gives them credit. Another thing is that it is easy to pass a message when everyone is around and no one will say ‘I did not know’ because it was announced during umuganda, which everyone is required to attend (EL 8-b 31 Dec 2010).
The practice of umuganda serves to fulfil the annual performance contract (imihigo47) promised to the President by mayors and district leaders, both in Kigali and in rural areas. The mayor on his own is able to raise 20% to 30% of his budget; the rest comes from the ministries. This means that he will pay close attention to the priorities of the ministries, and will persuade his people accordingly (Purdeková, 2011: 490).
Thus umuganda seems to be regarded more as a service to the government leaders than a benefit to ordinary people. This shows a high level of detachment between the traditional understandings of the practice of umuganda and the current state-led version.
6.1.5 The level of benefit to the country as a whole
Table 6.6 indicates that in the pre-colonial era, people from Kigali thought that umuganda was very beneficial to the country as a whole (45%), while respondents from Western Province thought that is was just beneficial (51%). In the colonial and post-colonial periods until the genocide, umuganda was seen as just beneficial to the county as a whole (36% and 49%
respectively in Kigali, and 48%, 57%, in Western Province). While participants from Kigali
47 Imihigo (umuhigo, in a singular sense) is a traditional accountability mechanism which has been institutionalized as a means of enhancing local government reform and stimulating development. Failure to meet this public commitment leads to dishonour (see UNIFEM: Imihigo: Adapting a traditional accountability mechanism to improve response to gender-based violence, www.uniferm.org , accessed on 16 June 2011.
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thought that umuganda after the genocide is very beneficial to the country (49%), Western Province respondents thought that it is just beneficial (52%). Of significance, though, is the 41%
from Kigali, who responded that in the post-genocide period, umuganda is just beneficial. In general, few perceive that umuganda is not beneficial (11% in Kigali and 14% in Western Province), opinions ranging from beneficial to not beneficial at all.
Table 6.6: Level of benefit: country as a whole
Location Pre-
colonial
Colonial Post- colonial
Post- genocide
n % n % n % n %
Kigali Country as a whole 68 89 70 92 74 97 76 100
Very beneficial 34 45 22 29 20 26 37 49
Beneficial 24 32 27 36 37 49 31 41
Less beneficial 6 8 15 20 14 18 6 8
Not beneficial at all 4 5 6 8 3 4 2 3
Western
Province Country as whole 63 100 63 100 63 100 63 100
Very beneficial 24 38 18 29 12 19 21 33
Beneficial 32 51 30 48 36 57 33 52
Less beneficial 4 6 11 17 13 21 9 14
Not beneficial at all 3 5 4 6 2 3 0 0
Despite the findings discussed on the benefits of umuganda, there was no clarity on how advantageous umuganda is to the country as a whole. This might be due to some conceptual confusion, whereby some respondents understand the notion ‘country as a whole’ to mean a state or government, while a few others interpret ‘country as a whole’ to mean government and people. This then could explain why the results appear mixed; those in Kigali are divided between assessing umuganda as very beneficial (49%) and just beneficial (41%) for the country as a state.
As evidence of the benefit of umuganda to the country as a whole, ordinarily community members, government leaders and elders referred to various roads, principally main roads,
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which were built in the colonial period using umuganda. Participants cherish the continuing benefits for individuals, communities, political leaders and the country as a whole. For example, in Western Province, the most visible benefit of umuganda that was identified was the main road that connects with the border of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) - Cyangungu to Kigali- despite its being built with forced labour, which is different from the original conception and interpretation of umuganda. Herbst notes that road construction is an important instrument of state control (2000: 3).
Other visible benefits that were mentioned are coffee and tea plantations that are still contributing the bulk of the national economy. However, considering the examples and evidence given, one still questions how umuganda has benefited the poor, bearing the philosophy of umuganda in mind. What is the extent of state control over the practice of umuganda?