CHAPTER 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.4 Actors in Environmental Policy Making
2.4.2 Environmental Consultants
Environmental consultants are a product of the transition that is taking place in the political- economy. The traditional political-economy is shifting away industrial societies dominated by activities, such as manufacturing, to knowledge-based societies characterised by higher standards of education and intelligent organisations (Evers and Menkhoff 2004). Some of the characteristics of a knowledge-based society are the replacement of labour and capital with knowledge, the creation of a culture of knowledge production, and the removal of the physical barriers of time and space because information can now be exchanged in real time (Britz et al. 2006).
Although environmental consultants are considered to be non-state actors, they are often not associated with other environmental movements and non-government organisations (NGOs) because they pursue profit (Chandler 2000). This creates conflict between environmental consultants and other non-profit individuals and organisation because there is the assumption that consultants are motivated by self interest and closely associated with the elite. This is the reason that Evers and Menkoff (2004: 126) define environmental consultants as “an expert who acquires, packages, and sells specific and confidential knowledge for a fee with the expectation that his knowledge is applied and acted upon”. There are three reasons that environmental consultants have become important in environmental policy processes.
Firstly, from an economic perspective, while the production of other goods and services experience the law of diminishing marginal returns, consultants experience rising marginal utility (Evers and Menkoff 2004). Perloff (2001: 153) defines the law of diminishing marginal returns as “if a firm keeps increasing input, holding all other inputs and technology constant, the corresponding increases in output will become smaller eventually”. Consultants do not experience diminishing marginal return because the more they know the more valuable they become. As knowledge is needed in order to utilise the information effectively, the more knowledgeable the individual, the more effective the way in which the information is used (Evers and Menkoff 2004). Knowledge is seen as being individualistic because only individuals can know and what they know is influenced by their perception, memory, and experience (Metcalfe and Ramlogan 2005; Liang 2004).
Although knowledge is individualistic, the sharing of knowledge and the creation of common understanding is only possible through social processes and institutions (Metcalfe and Ramlogan 2005). This is because institutions create a connection between knowledge and common understanding by storing and communicating information through mediums, such as language, and by establishing the rules and standards regarding the creation and use of knowledge. However, understanding cannot be seen as being entirely deterministic because it involves choice, judgment and creativity, which creates the scope for dispute, and contestation of ideas. Hayek (1945) argues that while knowledge is individualistic, it is also dependant on local circumstances of ‘time and place’. As knowledge is time and place specific, it creates opportunities for environmental consultants who are familiar with local circumstances and able to utilize local resources available effectively.
Secondly, environmental consultants often employ several mechanisms to increase the demand for their services and the clients’ satisfaction with their products. Environmental consultants often package their knowledge using high quality graphics, slide shows, and a special language or discourse to increase the value of their product. This convinces the client that they have purchased a valuable and legitimate product (Evers and Menkoff 2004). Consultants also incorporate contemporary theories and concepts into their products to convince the client that the product is valid and up-to-date. However, there is much literature which documents failed consultancies between the client and external consultants (Gable 1996). Often the reason for this situation is the poor appreciation by both the client and the consultant of the clients’ true goals for the project and how to assess the progress towards those goals. This is because consultants often assume that it is the responsibility of the client to specify the goals of the project and their responsibility is to deliver the report and make recommendations based on those goals. Gable (1996) argues that failed consultancies also occur because clients do not only base their level of satisfaction with the consultation on the outcomes, but the process itself.
Thirdly, the state often seeks consultation because there is a competence deficiency or lack of necessary skills to solve particular problems. This situation may also arise when individuals are promoted to a position beyond their talents or competence because of a lack of suitable applicants (Blake and Mouton 1990). In these situations, consultants are often seen as the driving force in environmental policy processes because they play such an influential role and their ability to solve complex environmental issues and problems (Evers and Menkoff 2004). Consultants are also able to play an important catalytic role within policy making processes because they can be seen as being independent of the state or as external observers (Evers and Menkoff 2004). In this role, consultants are able to introduce new ways of thinking, framing of problems, and discourses into an organisation. However, public officials also use environmental consultants to legitimate political action by the offloading the accountability and responsibility from the decision makers (Evers and Menkoff 2004; Blake and Mouton 1990). This creates imbalances in the policy making process because accountability has been shifted to the environmental consultants for decisions that they have informed, but not made.
The lack of competency and skills within African states is one of the reasons that Britz et al. (2006) argue that the development of human intellectual capital, through education, training, research, and development, is an essential element of a knowledge-based society. This is because educated people
are able to adapt to new situations and use information more effectively. However, developing countries, such as South Africa, are experiencing what is referred to as the ‘brain drain’ which is the movement of its scientists and researchers or intellectual capital to the developed world (Britz et al.
2006). This unique situation undermines that ability of developing countries to expand their human intellectual capital and shift towards being a knowledge society.
Britz et al. (2006) argue that the general public are also important in environmental policy processes. This is because higher levels of education and presence of intelligent organisations, such as environmental consulting firms, have allowed the general public to question environmental policies and make government accountable for the decisions that they make. The following section focuses on their role in environmental policy making.